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4 













i 



Plate V.—TIIE CIRCULATION* 










TEXT-BOOK 


Anatomy, Physiology, 

AND 


HYGIENE. 


DESIGNED FOR USE IN COLLEGES, HIGH SCHOOLS, 

ACADEMIES AND FAMILIES. 



y A 

By J. H. KELLOGG, M. D., 


MEMBER OF THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE, THE 
AMERICAN PUBLIC HEALTH ASSOCIATION, THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF MI- 
CROSCOPISTS, THE MICHIGAN STATE MEDICAL ASSOCIATION, 

STATE BOARD OF HEALTH OF MICHIGAN, ETC. 





BATTLE CREEK, MICH.: 

GOOD HEALTH PUBL T 3HING COMPANY. 


1881. 






Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1880, 
By J. H. KELLOGG, M. D., 

In the office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 


ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. 



PREFACE. 


At the present age of the world when Solomon’s assertion that 
“ of making many books there is no end ” is more emphatically true 
than ever before, no apology can be offered for presenting to the 
public a new book on any subject unless the new production presents 
some advantages over its predecessors. This is as true of educational 
works of all classes as of other books. It seems to be the fashion at 
the present time for every professor in a college of any distinction to 
issue a text-book. This has been going on until the market is glutted 
with school books on all subjects. In some departments, as in mathe¬ 
matics, language, and most of the natural sciences, our text-books 
have attained a high degree of excellence; unfortunately, however, 
this cannot be said of the books furnished to students upon the subject 
presented in this work. For several years this fact has been recog¬ 
nized, and the call for a text-book upon Anatomy, Physiology and 
Hygiene which shall be up to the times in each of these different de¬ 
partments, has been growing louder and more emphatic, coming from 
State and County superintendents of education, teachers, students, 
and hygienists. One of the greatest faults generally recognized in the 
various text-books on this subject has been the universal lack of prac¬ 
tical information on the subject of hygiene. In many instances too 
much attention has been given to the technicalities of anatomy, re¬ 
quiring the student to memorize hundreds of Greek and Latin names 
which do not by any means represent a proportionate number of 
practical facts. 

Another very general fault with school text-books upon this sub¬ 
ject has been the failure of their authors to present the very latest 

information on all the subjects treated. Physiology and Hygiene are 

(iii) 



IV 


PREFACE. 


not fixed sciences like logic, mechanics, and mathematics, hut are yet 
in a forming state, each day bringing out new and important facts 
which must be recognized in order to enable one to be really intelligent 
on the subject. 

In this work we have endeavored to avoid some of the errors of 
other writers, though possibly we may have fallen into others equally 
grave. Whether or not we have succeeded in approaching any nearer 
to the standard of what a perfect text-book of Anatomy, Physiology 
and Hygiene ought to be, will be determined by those who make an 
actual trial of the merits of this work. 

The subject matter of this work is essentially the substance of the 
series of lectures which we have given annually for the last five years 
before classes in Battle Creek College and in the School of Hygiene. 
Those who have listened to the lectures referred to, will notice nu¬ 
merous improvements and additional facts, which are largely the re¬ 
sult of the study of recent medical literature in the Medical Library 
of the Army and Navy Museum located at Washington, D. C. 

In conclusion, we would invite the friendly criticism of teachers 
and others into whose hands this book may fall, trusting that by the 
aid of such kindly assistance we may be able to improve the work in 
future editions until it shall fully meet the present urgent want of a 
text-book of Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene, for schools, which 
shall give just the proper kind and amount of information upon each 
branch of the subject, and shall present the newest and most reliable 
facts established up to the day of publication. 


J. H. K. 


CONTENTS. 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

Definitions.—Anatomy—Physiology—Hygiene—Man’s place in nature 
—The constitution of matter—Matter the basis of existence— 

The nature of matter—Force and atoms—Organization—Low¬ 
est forms of life—The basis of life—The scale of being—How 
protoplasm works—Differences between inorganic and organized 
matter—Animals and vegetables—Distinctions between man and 
beast—What is right, and what is wrong?. 25-37 

General Anatomy, or Histology.—How a human machine is built— 

The anatomical elements—White fibrous tissue—Yellow elastic tis¬ 
sue—Connective tissue—Adipose tissue—Cartilage tissue—Osse¬ 
ous or bony tissue—Muscular tissue—Nerve tissue—Membranes 
—A general view of the human mechanism. 38-49 

The Bones.—Structure of bones—The joints—Varieties of joints—Di¬ 
visions of the skeleton—Bones of the head—The skull—Bones 
of the face—Bones of the trunk—The vertebras—The thorax— 

The ribs—The sternum—The pelvis—The hyoid bone—Bones of 
the upper extremities—The scapula—The clavicle—The arm— 

The fore-arm—The hand—The inferior extremities—The thigh 
—The leg—The foot—The sesamoid bones—The wormian bones 
—Bones of the ear—Physiology of the bones—Support—Protec¬ 
tion—Motion—Possible function of the bones—Composition of 
the bones—Hygiene of the bones—Proper development—-Im¬ 
proper food—spinal curvatures—Deformity from tight-lacing— 

Abuse of the feet. 50-75 

The Muscles.—Two kinds of muscles—The tendons—Form and ar¬ 
rangement of muscles—Names and action of special muscles— 
Muscles of the head—The occipito-frontalis—The corrugator 
supercilii—Orbicularis palpebrarum—Auricular muscles—Mus¬ 
cles of the nose—Muscles of the mouth — Muscles of ex¬ 
pression—Muscles of mastication—Internal muscles of the eye 
—Internal ear muscles—Muscles of the neck—Muscles of the 
trunk—Muscles within the trunk—Muscles of the upper ex¬ 
tremities—Muscles of the wrist—Muscles of the thumb and fin¬ 
gers—Muscles of the lower extremities—Muscles of the thigh 
—Muscles of the leg—Muscles of the foot—Physiology of the 
muscles—How a muscle contracts—Mechanical action of muscles 
—Uses of muscles—Locomotion—Manual motion—Speaking— 

(v) 







VI 


CONTENTS. 


Muscular action in respiration—Muscular action in digestion— 
Muscular action in the circulation of the blood—Relation of mus¬ 
cles and nerves—Fatigue—Muscular electricity—Muscular sense 
—Rigor mortis—Hygiene of the muscular system—Effect of dis¬ 
use of muscles—How to take exercise—Best time to exercise— 

Kind of exercise to be taken—Deficient exercise by students— 
Over-training—Necessity for unrestrained action—Evils of tight- 
lacing and corset-wearing—Elastics—Pull-backs, low shoulders, 
etc.—Tight shoes—Bad positions—Bad positions in sleeping- 
improper attitudes in sitting—Bad positions in standing—How 
to walk—Relation of food to the muscles.76-115 

The Nervous System.— Anatomy of the brain and nerves—Structure of 
nerve tissue—Divisions of the nervous system—Description of the 
cerebro-spinal system—Structure of the brain—The spinal cord 
—The cerebro-spinal nerves—The sympathetic or organic system 
of nerves—General properties of nerves—Physiology of the brain 
and nerves—Functions of the medulla oblongata—Functi ons of the 
pons and optic lobes—Functions of the cerebellum—Functions of 
the central ganglia—Functions of the cerebrum—The functions 
of the spinal cord—Functions of the spinal nerves—Functions of 
the cranial nerves—Functions of the sympathetic system—The 
mind—The mechanism of thought—The will—Memory—Blush¬ 
ing—Pain and its uses—Sleep—Somnambulism—Mesmerism— 

Animal magnetism— Mind-reading—Phrenology—Hygiene of 
the brain and nerves—Necessity for mental exercise—Proper 
mode of developing the minds of children—School cramming— 
Unsymmetrical mental development—Evils of excessive brain- 
labor—Pernicious effects of stimulants and narcotics.116-165 

The Organs of Special Sense,—The skin—The sense of touch— 

The muscular sense—The sense of temperature—The sense of 
taste—Taste aided by other senses—The uses of taste—Electrical 
excitement of the sense of taste—The organs of smell—Uses of the 
sense of smell—Hearing: the auditory sense—The external car— 

The middle ear—The ear-bones—The internal ear—Physiology of 
the ear—The nature of sound—How we hear—The musical in¬ 
strument of the ear—The accommodation of hearing—Use of the 
Eustachian tube—Source of the power of maintaining equi¬ 
librium—How direction of sounds is determined—Interesting 
facts about the sense of hearing—The eye and its functions—The 
orbit—The eyelids — The lachrymal apparatus—The eyeball— 

The iris—The ciliary muscle—The retina—The crystalline lens 
—The aqueous humor—The vitreous humor—The physiology of 
the eye—Properties of light—Properties of lenses—How we see 
—Accommodation of the eye—Visual judgments—Judgment of 
distance and size—Judgment of solidity—Curious facts about the 
sense of sight—After-images—The blind spot—Contrast—Hy¬ 
giene of the special senses—The law of use and abuse—Evils of 
excessive stimulation of the senses—Hygiene of the eye—Com¬ 
mon neglect of the eye—Tobacco a cause of eye disease—Effects 






CONTENTS. 


Vll 


of poor light—A cause of near-sightedness—Hygiene of the ears 
—Danger of meddling with the ears—Danger of boxing the ears 
—Taking cold in the ears—Exposures of the ears.166-201 

The Circulatory Apparatus.—The heart—Valves of the heart—The 
pericardium—The blood-vessels—Names of some of the principal 
arteries—The capillaries—The veins—Action of the heart—- 
Heart sounds—Amount of work done by the heart—The pulse 
—Frequency of the pulse—The course of the blood in the circu- 
ation—The systemic circulation—The pulmonary circulation— 

The portal circulation—Forces of the circulation—The heart—The 
arteries—The capillaries—-The muscles and the valves of the 
veins—Heat-—The lungs—Regulation of the circulation—Reg¬ 
ulation of local blood supply—The blood—Composition of the . 
blood—White blood corpuscles—The red blood corpuscles—The 
liquid portion of the blood—Functions of the blood—Function of 
the white blood corpuscles—Function of the red blood corpuscles 
—An interesting sight—The lymphatics—Functions of the lym¬ 
phatics—Hygiene of the circulation—Exercise necessary for a 
healthy circulation—Dangers of excessive exercise — Proper 
clothing essential to healthful circulation—Evil effects of con¬ 
striction—Effects of food on the circulation—Injurious effects of 
cold—Evil effects of heat . 202-230 

The Respiratory Apparatus.—The air-passages—The lungs—Physi¬ 
ology of respiration—Movements of respiration—Frequency of 
respiration—Coughing, sneezing, laughing, and other modifica¬ 
tions of respiration—Capacity of the lungs—Vital capacity— 
Composition of the air—Changes in the air during respiration— 
Changes in the blood in respiration—Respiration of the skin— 
Hygiene of respiration—Lung exercise—The spirometer—Corset 
choking—Poisonous character of air which has been breathed— 
Rapidity with which the air is contaminated by breathing—The 
effects of breathing impure air. .231-245 

The Digestive Apparatus.—The alimentary canal—The mouth—The 
teeth—The milk teeth—The permanent teeth—The oesophagus 
—The stomach—The small intestine—The liver and pancreas— 

The colon—The digestive juices—The saliva—The gastric juice 
—The pancreatic juice—The bile—The intestinal juice—The 
physiology of digestion—The chemistry of digestion—The ele¬ 
ments of food—Action of the saliva—Action of the gastric juice 
—Action of the bile—Action of the pancreatic juice—Action of 
the intestinal juice—Review of the action of the digestive juices 
—The digestive process—Mastication—Insalivation—Stomach 
digestion — Intestinal digestion — Absorption — Oxygenation— 
Nervous relations—Vomiting — Hygiene of digestion — Hasty 
eating—Drinking at meals—Eating too frequently—Eating be¬ 
tween meals—Irregularity of meals—The proper number of meals 
—Eating when tired—Sleeping after meals—Late suppers—Too 
many varieties of food—Hot and cold bathing after meals—Er¬ 
rors in quantity of food—Overeating—Eating too little—How 






CONTENTS. 


vm 


much should a person eat?—Deficient food elemehts—The quality 
of food—Bad cookery—Fried food—Uncooked food—Decayed 
food—Soft food—Too abundant use of fats—The use of sugar in 
excess—Condiments—Pickles—Vinegar—Tea and coffee—Alco¬ 
hol—Tobacco—Hard water—Alkalies—Perverted appetites— 
Adulterations of food—Unseasonable diet—Pressure upon the 
stomach—Drugs—Neglect of the bowels—Mental influence—Hy¬ 
giene of the teeth.246—299 

Secretion and Excretion.—Secretions—Excretions—The skin —The 
sweat glands—The hair—Sudden blanching of the hair—The 
sebaceous glands—The nails—Functions of the skin—Clean¬ 
liness—How to make the skin healthy—Bathing protects 
against colds—Aristocratic vermin—Bathing a natural instinct 
—Clothing—Essential qualifications of clothing—False hair and 
hair dyes—The kidneys—The liver—The bile—The spleen— 

Other blood glands—Animal heat.300-315 

Reproduction.—Simplest form of generation—Sex—Hermaphrodism— 

Sex in plants—Sex in animals—Other sexual differences—Men and 
women differ inform—The male and the female brain—Vital organs 
of man and woman—The reproductive elements—Sexual organs of 
plants—Sexual organs of animals—The ovum—Fecundation—Fe¬ 
cundation in flowers—Modes of fecundation in animals—Devel¬ 
opment—Unprotected development—Development in the higher 
animals and man—The uterus—Uterine gestation—The primi¬ 
tive trace—Curious relation to lower animals—Simplicity of early 
structures—The stages of growth—Duration of gestation—Uter¬ 
ine life—How the unborn infant breathes—Parturition—Changes 
in the child at birth—Nursing—Puberty—Influence of diet on 
puberty—Premature development occasions early decays—Changes 
which occur at puberty—Menstruation—Nature of menstruation 
—Important hints—Custom of Indian women—Extra uterine 
pregnancy—Twins—Monsters—Hybrids—Law of sex—Hered¬ 
ity—Ante-natal influences—Sexual hygiene—Sexual precocity— 
Chastity—Mental unchastity—Early causes—Diet vs. chastity— 

Tobacco and vice—Bad books—Unthought-of excesses—Conti¬ 
nence not injurious—Does not produce impotence—Difficulty of 
continence—Helps to continence—The will—Diet—Exercise— 
Bathing—Religion—Sexual crimes—Criminal abortion—Secret 
vice—Evil associations—The evil underestimated.316-360 





LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 


Fig. Page. 

1-8. Illustrate protoplasm and cells. 32 

9, 10. White and yellow fibrous tissue. 40 

11, 12. Connective and adipose tissue. 41 

13. Cartilage tissue, showing the character¬ 

istic cells. 42 

14. Transverse section of bone as seen with 

the microscope. 43 

15. Magnified view of longitudinal section of 

bone. 43 

10. Muscular tissue showing smallest fibres 

with striae. 44 

17. Non-striated muscular fibres. 44 

18. Nerve cells, showing poles. 45 

19. Nerve fibres, showing fibrillae. 45 

20. Epithelial cells. 47 

21. 22. Skeleton, and long bone, showing 

periosteum. 50 

23. Longitudinal section of the large end of 

a bone. 51 

24. Skull, showing the sutures. 52 

25. “ with bones separated. 52 

26. “ “ outer plate removed, showing 

the diploe and the channels for blood¬ 
vessels. 53 


27. The spinal column. . 

28. Vertical section of two contiguous verte¬ 

brae, showing their spongy structure 
and cartilage between them. . 

29. The first vertebra, called the atlas. 

30. Bones of the foot. 

31. Malleus, incus, and stapes.. .. 

32. Designed to show how the jar of walking 

is prevented from reaching the brain.. 

33. Bone rendered flexible and tied in a knot 

34. Section of vertebrae, showing fibro-carti- 

lage disc of normal shape. 

35. Showing cartilage thickened as the re¬ 

sult of ante>ior curvature.. 

36. Showing cartilage thinned, as result of 

posterior curvature. 

37. Double curvature of the spine. 

37. Fusiform muscle... 

38. Pennate “ ., 

39. Fan-shaped “ . 

40. Circular “ . 

41. General view of the muscles. 

42. Muscles of the head and neck. 

43. “ “ face “ “ . 

44. Showing muscles of the eye. 

45. “ trunk. 

46. Illustrating first kind of lever. 

47. “ second “ “ . 

48. “ third “ “ . 

49. Second kind of lever ill. by the foot. 

50. Third “ “ “ “ arm. 

51. Di-gastric, illustrating the pulley. 

52. Waist of natural shape. 

53. “ compressed by tight-lacing. 

54. Ribs in their natural position. 

55. “ distorted by corset-wearing. 

56. Chinese lady’s foot and slipper. 

57. 58. Improper positions in sleeping. 

59, 60, 61, 62. Improper positions in sitting. 

63. Proper position “ “ 

64. Unhealthy position made necessary by 

old-style school seat. 


56 


56 

57 
62 

63 

64 
66 

71 

71 

71 

72 


77 

78 

79 

80 
80 
81 
86 
86 
86 
87 

87 

88 
100 
100 
101 
101 
103 

107 

108 
109 

no 


Fig. Page 

65. Correct attitude encouraged by Auto- « 

matic school seat. Ill 

66. Improper position in standing. 112 

67. Proper “ “ “ . 112 

68. General view of nervous system. 116 

69. The brain and spinal cord. 117 

70. View of upper surface of brain. 117 

71. “ “ under “ “ showing 

the origins of several pairs of nerves. 118 

72. The left half of the brain. 118 

73. Horizontal section of the brain through 

its middle portion, showing relation of 
the white matter to the gray. 119 

74. \ r iew of the cranial nerves, with their 

points of origin in the brain. 119 

75. View of Sympathetic Nervous System... 121 

76. Diagram showing position of “bumps” 

as located by phrenology. 153 

77. Illustrating sense of touch. 168 

78. The ear, showing all three parts. 175 

79. Incus, malleus, and stapes. 176 

80. The internal ear. 177 

81. The eye, showing apparatus for remov¬ 

ing tears from the eye. 182 

82. Glandular apparatus of the eye. 183 

83. Vertical section of the eyeball. 184 

84. Diagram, showing optical properties of 

lenses..*. 187 

85. Card, showing limit of accommodation 

to the eye. 189 

86. Crystalline lens, adjusted for different 

distances. 189 

87. Illustrates the blind spot on the retina.. 192 

88. The heart. 202 

89. Shows two sides of the heart and their * 

cavities. 203 

90. Double heart of dugong. 203 

91. The heart with portions of its walls re¬ 

moved, showing interior cavities. 204 

92. Heart, showing relative size of its cavi¬ 

ties and thickness of the walls of ven- 
trirlpR 204 

93. The arterial system. 205 

94. “ venous “ 206 

95. A r alves of veins closed. 207 

96. “ “ as they appear when the 

vein is slit open. 207 

97. Diagram, showing valve between auricle 

and ventricle open, and semi-lunar 
valve closed. 207 

98. Diagram, showing valve befVeen auricle 

and ventricle closed, and semi-lunar 
valve open. 208 

99. Tracing of the pulse obtained by the 

sphygmograph. 209 

100. Diagram of the circulation. 210 

101. Diagram showing direction of blood 

current in blood-vessels. 211 

102. Shows how valves of the veins aid the 

circulation. 213 

103. Red and white blood corpuscles. 216 

104. Red blood corpuscles. 217 

105. Lymphatic gland. 221 

106. Lymphatic glands and vessels of the 

head and neck. 222 

107. Lymphatic vessels of arm. 223 

(ix) 




























































































X 


LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Fig. Page. 

108. Lymphatic vessels showing valves. 223 

109. Means of protecting back of head and 

neck from exposure to the sun. 230 

110. The pharynx. 231 

111. 'I he larynx. 231 

112. The air-passages of the lungs. 232 

113. Lobules of lung, showing air-cells. 233 


114. Cut showing relation of lungs and heart 234 

115. “ “ how capacity of chest is 

enlarged by expansion of its walls, &c. 235 

116. A literal view, illustrating the same... 235 

117. Relative capacity of the chest and po¬ 


sition of diaphragm after complete ex¬ 
piration. 237 

118. Relative capacity of the chest and posi¬ 

tion of the diaphragm after a full in¬ 
spiration. 237 

119. Spirometer. 241 

120. The alimentary canal. 246 

121. The mouth. 247 

122. The temporary or milk teeth. 248 


Fig. Page. 

123. The permanent teeth — * . 249 

124. The stomach and portion of duodenum- 250 

125. Villi of intestines magnified. 252 

126. Villi of intestinal mucous membrane... 252 

127. Folds of intestinal mucous membrane. 253 

128. Pancreas, duodenum, spleen. 253 

129. Portion of intestinal canal, showing 

mesenteric glands and lacteals. 264 

130. Root of a hair. 302 

131. The kidney. 313 

132. Internal structure of kidney. 313 

133. Spleen. 314 

134. Sexual organs of plants. 321 

135. Spermatozoa; human, and of lower ani¬ 

mals . 321 

136. Human ovum. 322 

137. Diagram illustrating segmentation of 

ovum. 325 

138. Ovum after fecundation. 325 

139. Chang and Eng, Siamese twins. 339 


LIST OF PLATES. 


Plate I .—SKELETON. 

Plate II .—THE MUSCLES. 

Plate III .—THE NERVES. 

Plate IV.— THE SKIN. 

Plate VI .—THE HEART , BLOOD CORPUSCLES AND CIRCULA¬ 
TION IN FOOT OF FROG. 

Plate VII.— BONES OF THE HEAD.—THE INTERNAL EAR. 
Plate VIII .—MUSCLES OF THE HEAD. — MUSCLES OF THE 
TRUNK. 

Plate IX.—SECTIONS OF THE BRAIN. 

Plate X.—THE BRAIN AND CRANIAL NERVES. 

Plate XI.—SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM.—MEASLY PORK 
AND TRICHINAE. 

Plate XII .—THE TEETH.—GRAINS OF WHEAT MAGNIFIED. 
Plate XIII.—DISEASED LUNG.—FATTY LIVER—MUSCLE AND 
NERVE FIBRES—SMOKERS AND DRINKERS BLOOD COR¬ 
PUSCLES. 

Plate XIV.— HUMAN PARASITES. 

Plate XN.—ANIMALCULES AND INFUSORIA IN WATER. 


































PL A TES. 


xi 



NAMES OF THE BONES. 

1. Frontal; 2. Parietal; 3. Na¬ 
sal; 4. Temporal; 5. Lachrymal; 
6. Malar; 7 7 . Maxillary; 8. Vo¬ 
mer; 9. Cervical vertebrae; 10. 
Clavicle; 11. Scapula; 12. Stern¬ 
um; 13. Ribs; 14 14. Lumbar 
vertebrae; 15 15. Ossa Innominata; 
16. Sacrum; 17. Humerus; 13. 
Radius; 19. Ulna; 20. Carpus; 
21. Metacarpus; 22. Phalanges of 
hand; 23. Femur; 24. Patella; 
25. Fibula; 26. Tibia; 27. Os Cal- 
cis; 28. Tarsus; 29; Metatarsus; 
30. Phalanges of foot. 


Plate I. — THE SKELETON. 









Xll 


PL A TPS 





Plate II .—THE MUSCLES 














































































































































































FLA TVS. 


xm 



Plate III .—THE NERVES. 


XIV 


PLATES. 



Plate IV. THE SKIN. 


Showing a Vertical Section of the Skin, greatly magnified. a. a. Hairs in 
their follicles, connected with which are the Sebaceous Glands ; c. Sweat Gland 
with its duct; d. d. Blood-Vessels. 























FLA TPS. 


xv 




A. The heart, showing the origin of the large blood vessels ; B. Toe of frog, slightly 
magnified; C. Circulation in foot of frog, greatly magnified; D. Red blood corpuscles; E 
Blood corpuscles, red and white— a. white, b. red. 


Plate VI. 














XVI 


PLATES. 


BONES OF THE HEAD. 



1. Frontal. 

2. Parietal. . 

3. Temporal. 

1 4. Sphenoid. 

5.. Ethnoid. 

•. 6. Superior Maxillary. 

7. Malar. 

8. Lachrymal. 

9. Nasal. 

10. Inferior Maxillary. 


THE INTERNAL EAR. 


1, 2, 3. Semi-circular canals. 

4. Cochlea. 

5. Vestibule. 



Plate VII. 





PLATES. 


xvn 


MUSCLES OF THE HEAD. 


1, 2, 3. Occipito-frontalis. 

4. Orbicularis palpebrarum. 

5. Tensor tarsi. 

6. Compressor nasi.. 

7. Orbicularis oris. 

- 8. Levator labii superiors alae- 
quae nasi. 

9. Levator anguli oris. 

10. Zygomaticus minor. 

11. Zygomaticus major. 

12. Depressor labii inferioris. 

13. Depressor anguli oris. 

14. Levator menti. 

15. Masseter. 

17. Attrahens aurem. 

19. Attolens “ 

21. Retrahens “ 

22. Digastric. 

24. Glossal muscles, x 

25. Sterno-cleido-mastoid. 

26. Trapezius. 



MUSCLES OF THE TRUNK. 



Plate VIII. 


Pectoralis major. 
Deltoid. 

Latissimus dorsi. 
Serratus magnus. 
Subclavius. 
Pectoralis minor. 
Coraeo-braehialis. 
Biceps. 
Intercostales. 
External oblique. 
Sartorius. 

Rectus abdominalis. 
Transversal is. 










XV111 


PLATES. 


VERTICAL SECTION OF THE BRAIN BETWEEN THE 

HEMISPHERES. 





A. A. Left half of the cere¬ 

brum. 

B. Corpus Callosum. 

C. Optic Thalamus. 

D. Pons Varolii. 

E. Upper end of spinal cord. 

F. Divided portion of cere¬ 

bellum showing arbor 
vitae. 


HORIZONTAL SECTION OF THE BRAIN. 



1. White tissue of the brain. 

2. Gray tissue composed of cells. 

3. 4. Corpus callosum. 

8. Corpus striatum. 

14. Hippocampus. 

15. Choroid plexus. 

10. Optic thalamus. 


9 


Plate IX 



PL A TES. 


xix 


VIEW OF UNDER SURFACE OF THE BRAIN. 



I, 2. Longitudinal fissure. 
3, 3. Anterior lobes. 

4,4- Middle lobes. 

6, 6. Posterior lobes. 

7, 7. Cerebellum. 

9, 9. Olfactory lobes. 

II. Tuber cinereum. 

12, 12. Corpora albicantia. 

14. Origin of third nerve. 

15. Crus cerebri. 

16. Pons varolii. 


17. 

Origin of seventh 

nerve 

IS. 

U 

“ fourth 

u 

19. 

U 

“ fifth 

u 

20. 

u 

“ sixth 

V 4 

oo 
** • 

u 

“ eighth 

4 4 

26 

u 

“ ninth 

4 4 


A VIEW OF THE CRANIAL NERVES. 



a. a. a. Cerebrum. 

b. Cerebellum. 

c. Medulla oblongata. 

d. Spinal cord. 

1. Olfactory nerve. 

2. Optic. 

3. Motor oculi. 

4. Pathetic. 

5. Trifacial. 

6. Abducens. 

7. Facial. 

8. Auditory. 

9. Glosso-pharyngeal. 

10. Pneumogastric. 

11. Spinal accessory. 

12. Hypoglossal. 


Plate X. 







XX 


PLATES. 



THE SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS 
SYSTEM. 

A, A. Semi lunar ganglion and solar 
plexus. 

B, C. Tri-splanchnic nerves. 

I), I), D. Nerve centers of the thorax. 
G. Coronary plexus. 

I-T. Cervical glands and branches. 


Pork infected with Same as preceding, but 

triehininae capsules. considerably magnified. 


Measly pork, showing t.ape-J 
worm cvsts. 


Plate XI. 










FLA TEA. 


xxi 


THE TEETH. 



V. Vein. 

A. Artery. 

N. Nerve. 

I, 2. Incisor teeth. 

3. Cuspid “ 

4, 5. Bi-cuspid or small 

molar teeth. 

H, 7, 8. Molar or double 
teeth. 


The same deprived of its rough 
outer coat. 


A grain of wheat magnified. 



Plate XII. 






























XXII 


EL A TEA. 








h H 


0 ^ * 


K 


.4. Lung tissue tilled with charcoal dust ; B. Fatty liver—effects of alcohol ; C. Fatty 
muscle,— effects of alcohol : D. Fatty nerve fibres, from use of alcohol ; E. a. Healthy 
blood, b. Shows effects of tobacco, e. Shows effects of alcohol. 


Plate XIII 




































FLA TES, 


win 





Fig. 3. Fig 1 . 4. 

Plate XIV .—HUMAN PARASITES. 


Fui J. Trichinae lying loose among the muscular fibres as seen in a piece of ham newly infected. 
Fig. 2. Single Trichina in its capsule, some weeks after infection. Fig. 3. Head of a Tape-worm 
greatly magnified. Fig. 4 Threadworm. . 

































































































































































XXIV 


FLA TEA. 




ANIMALCULES AND INFUSORIA IN WATER. 



The above cut shows a great variety of different forms of animalcules and other minute 
organisms which are to be found in water containing organic matter. They were not all 
found in a single specimen, but represent the results of a large number of examinations 
made by Dr. Hassall of the water used in London for drinking purposes. 


£ 


Plate XV. 









ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, and HYGIENE. 


Definitions. — Anatomy is derived from two Greek words which 
literally signify to cut, or dissect. The word is used to designate the 
study of the form, structure, and other apparent properties of organ¬ 
ized bodies, whether animal or vegetable. In our use of the word it 
will be confined to the study of the human form. Comparative anat¬ 
omy is the study of each separate organ of an animal as compared 
with corresponding organs in other animals; this is one of the most 
fascinating and instructive branches of science. Our space will not 
allow of the extended study of this division of anatomy, but we shall 
call attention to some of the more interesting and important points 
connected with the subject. 

Physiology is a term derived from two Greek words which liter¬ 
ally mean a description of nature. When first coined by the ancient 
Greeks the word meant essentially the same as does the term physics 
at the present day. The philosophers of ancient Greece led their pu¬ 
pils about among the fields, through forests, and beside the lakes and 
rivers of that picturesque country, discoursing of the various animals, 
plants, rocks, and other natural objects which attracted their attention. 
This was a literal study of nature, and the study was called physi¬ 
ology. The term is now used to denote the science of the functions 
of living creatures. We have vegetable physiology as well as animal 
and human physiology. There is also comparative physiology , the 
complement of comparative anatomy, already defined, which relates 
to the comparative study of the functions of various animals. 

Hygiene is a word taken directly from the French language. It 
is used to signify the study of those laws which relate to the healthy 
action of the various organs of the body. It is one of the most im¬ 
portant and practical of all the subjects with which we have to deal, 
and will receive a proportionate amount of attention, both in connec¬ 
tion with the study of the anatomy and physiology of the several or- 
of the body, and in chapters especially devoted to the subject. 

(25) 


o;ans 

O 



26 


ANATOMY , PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


Man’s Place in Nature. —Much has been said of late regarding 
man’s place in nature, the general drift of the discussion of the sub¬ 
ject being to show that man is but the final product of a process of 
development which in the course of some millions of ages has raised 
him from a mere speck of dust to his present position at the head of 
all animate objects which come within the scope of our knowledge. 
It is not in this sense that we wish to speak of man’s position in the 
universe. We wish to direct the reader’s attention to the following 
facts:— 

1. That man is a part of the material universe. Whatever theory 
may be held respecting his nature, whether it is partly material and 
partly spiritual, being double, or whether wholly spiritual as affirmed 
by some or wholly material as claimed by others, it is generally con¬ 
ceded that science recognizes man only as a material object, a part of 
the great universe of matter, wonderfully complex in his constitution 
and organized with the most marvelous delicacy, yet no less a part 
of the world of matter which appears on every hand in such wondrous 
diversity of forms. 

2. That man is subject to the same general laws which govern 
other material objects. The same destructive agents which effect 
nearly all the changes in matter, fire, water, gases, and various chem¬ 
ical agents, operate upon man as upon other material objects. The 
law of gravitation holds him to the earth in precisely the same man¬ 
ner as though he were a stone. Electricity, that most potent of all 
the subtle, unseen agencies of nature, operates upon man as upon 
other objects, animate or inanimate, using him as a conductor when 
no more easy passage is at hand, utterly disregarding his presence or 
existence when a more facile route is offered. So with all the aoren- 

O 

cies and forces of nature. 

3. That the special laws which govern all organized bodies relate 
to man in common with all other animals and vegetables. It will be 
clearly seen by our future study of the human constitution that man is 
but a part of tl e general scheme of organization which includes all 
animal and vegetable life. Man is not a vegetable, but possesses 
many things in common with the lowest forms of vegetable life, even 
the microscopic mold which vegetates upon a stale fragment of bread. 

The Constitution of Matter.— In order for us to fully under¬ 
stand the varied relations of the human form divine to the rest of 
the universe, we must first study physiology in its broad, original 


MATTER THE BASIS OF EXISTENCE. 


27 


meaning; that is, we must study nature as a whole sufficiently to 
gain a knowledge of the great general laws which lie at the founda¬ 
tion of all existence animate or inanimate. By this study we shall 
discover that a senseless, lifeless stone may rightfully claim kinship 
with a king upon his throne. We shall learn that there is a common 
brotherhood existing between all material things. Nor will this 
knowledge, as some might fear, in any degree detract from the dig¬ 
nity of man, the lord of creation, though it will add to the dignity 
of many objects which we are, through the influence of early erro¬ 
neous education, inclined to look down upon. 

Before entering upon a more precise account of the nature and 
constitution of matter, we must premise a few points with which we 
are sure all candid, thinking persons will agree. 

1. We possess very little positive knowledge on any subject. 
Whenever we attempt to get hack to fundamental propositions, we 
find that nearly all our reasoning is based upon assumptions. 

2. Nevertheless .we must have something as a starting-point in 
all lines of thought or reasoning; and in the absence of absolute 
or positive knowledge, the only proper course left for us to pursue is 
to assume that which is the most probable. 

3. That which all will agree in accepting as the most probable is 
that which presents the most evidence in its favor, even though none 
of the evidence may be absolutely conclusive. 

4. The various organs of sense are our only means of receiving 
knowledge; hence we must accept the evidence of the senses, weighed 
by reason, as to what is most probable. 

Matter the Basis of Existence. —Viewing the subject in the 
light of the propositions stated, we are shut up to the conclusion that 
matter is the basis of all existence. We do not affirm that there is no 
other than material existence. We know that there must be, since 
ideas, qualities, and all abstract things exist, though immaterial; but 
still, science recognizes matter as the basis of all, since abstract exist¬ 
ence is only possible through the relation of abstract to concrete 
things. To illustrate, sweetness cannot exist independent of some 
sweet thing, and depends for its existence upon that object. So with 
all other properties, qualities, and relations. Science does not deny 
the existence of other than material entities, but does declare its ina¬ 
bility to recognize them, since it can deal only with material things, 
which must be evident to all when it is recollected that man possesses 


28 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


only seven senses, none of which are capable of recognizing any other 
than material objects. Any knowledge of immaterial objects must be 
obtained elsewhere than through scientific investigation. In this, all 
scientists are agreed. 

The Nature of Matter. —All the evidence we have on this subject 
points to the conclusion that all material things are composed of infi¬ 
nitely small particles which are indivisible, and which possess certain 
properties common to all forms of matter. For instance, we will sup¬ 
pose that we take a rock and grind it into an impalpable powder. 
Now we will take as small a quantity of this dust as will adhere to 
the point of a pin. Placing it upon a perfectly clean slip of glass, we 
will look at it with a powerful microscope. The invisible particles 
now appear each like a great rock rivaling in proportions the original 
mass. Now, by means of delicate appliances, we will divide one of 
these portions into particles so fine as to be invisible even with the 
microscope employed. A much more powerful instrument still brings 
them into view. Another subdivision by chemical means places the 
particles beyond the power of any microscope, yet the spectroscope 
will still discover their presence, so that we know they are not lost. 
So far as our knowledge goes, no further subdivision can be made, 
and the ultimate, invisible particles are known as atoms. 

Atoms do not exist separately, but are combined in groups, which 
are known as molecules. 

The size of atoms cannot be accurately known; but it has been 
determined within certain limits by calculations based on very proba¬ 
ble data, the results of which seem to show that if an apple were mag¬ 
nified to the size of the earth, the atoms which compose it would be 
not larger than cricket balls nor smaller than fine shot. 

Force and Atoms. —A mischievous doctrine has been taught from 
early ages down to the present time respecting the nature of force and 
its relations to matter and material objects. The ancient and popu¬ 
lar view has been that force is a separately existing something which 
operates upon matter and material objects, producing all the various 
changes and operations observable in matter. Science has in modern 
times thoroughly exposed the fallacy of this theory. What evidence 
we have on this subject goes to establish the view that force is but a 
property of matter, and that it is inseparably connected with matter. 
That matter and force are inseparable is quite patent when we at¬ 
tempt to conceive of either one as existing alone. Such a conception 


ORGANIZATION — LOWEST FORMS OF LIFE. 


29 


is as impossible as the formation of an idea concerning a thing which 
is utterly devoid of properties. 

It is further established by philosophical research that each atom 
possesses a certain definite amount of force, which is of necessity un¬ 
changing. This force may be sometimes active in one way, and some¬ 
times in another, but is always present. 

We do not need to trouble ourselves with the various theories 
respecting the exact nature of atoms, since the general principles laid 
down hold equally good with all. Whether atoms are hard, indivisi¬ 
ble particles, or whether they are something different, does not mat¬ 
ter, since we do know that they possess certain definite properties, 
many of which have been determined. It may be, indeed, that, as not 
a few eminent philosophers have supposed, there is but one funda¬ 
mental atom and one primary force; still, our reasoning holds good. 

Organization. —As matter is the basis of material existence, so or¬ 
ganization is the basis of life in its great diversity of forms. This 
question has been the subject of an almost endless amount of discus¬ 
sion, which we shall not attempt to review here. We will simply 
state as before, and we do so without fear of successful contradiction, 
that what evidence we have on the subject leads directly and irresist¬ 
ibly to the conclusion that life is the result of organization, being the 
manifestation of the forces of nature connected with matter, modified 
by a peculiar arrangement. This special arrangement, which occa¬ 
sions the peculiar manifestations constituting the phenomena of life, 
is what is known as organization. All that makes a plant different 
from the soil out of which it grows, and the air and water which 
nourish it, is the peculiar arrangement given to the various elements 
which are taken in from the surroundings of the plant. The organi¬ 
zation of a plant is analogous to the organization of an army or a gov¬ 
ernment, simply an arrangement of the component parts. Each par¬ 
ticular plant has its own peculiar arrangement, just as each particular 
government has its peculiar organization. Destroy the organization, 
and the life which depended on it is also destroyed. What is true of 
a plant is also true of an animal, and of a human being. 

Lowest Forms of Life. —A little speck of scum from a stagnant 
pool or a drop of slime from a moist rock by the sea-shore, when 
viewed with a good microscope, is seen to be almost wholly made up 
of minute living organisms. Stagnant water always teems with these 
low forms of life. In some localities the bottom of the sea is covered 


30 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE . 


with them. Some of the simplest forms of these minute organisms 
are mere specks of life which do not differ much in appearance from < 
particles of dust. Indeed, eminent observers have not infrequently 
confounded these curious little living atoms with inanimate dust. A 
close inspection, however, shows that they possess some very different 
properties from dust particles; in other words, that they are alive. 
Other forms appear like little drops of jelly. Round, transparent, 
they might be easily mistaken for bubbles or masses of some gelati¬ 
nous substance were it not that now and then they will be seen to 
move. If watched closely, it will be observed that they change their 
form and position, and even eat. They possess no eyes, no mouth, no 
teeth, no organs of locomotion, in fact are nothing apparently, but 
tiny jelly drops; and yet they seem to be conscious, they move about 
from place to place, and feed upon the little particles with which they 
come in contact. 

Here is life in its most lowly form. It is not hard to think that 
these tiny creatures, so like the inanimate particles with which we are 
familiar in the study of chemistry and physics, are but unique ar¬ 
rangements of the same matter which in other forms obeys the well- 
known laws of matter in its simplest forms. 

The Basis of Life.— The little jelly drop sustains to higher or¬ 
ganisms the same relation that the atom does to all other forms of 
matter. It is the basis of life. Protoplasm is the technical term 
which scientists apply to the atom of living forms. Out of these sim¬ 
ple forms of life all higher and more complex organisms are formed. 
This is true of animals as well as vegetables. Take a man in pieces, 
and he will be found to be made of similar masses connected together 
by various devices. Dissect a tree, and the same will be found to hold 
true. Examine a drop of blood with a microscope, and it will be seen 
that the blood is simply a stream in which are floating, swimming, 
moving, and working, millions of little creatures so nearly like the 
microscopic creatures found in the scum of a stagnant pool that they 
have received the same name. The arteries and veins of the body 
may be looked upon as corresponding to the rivers and streams of a 
continent, and the blood corpuscles to the fish which swim in the 
waters. 

The Scale of Being .—Man must be looked upon as a part of the 
great world of life. He is not a distinct and wholly unique creation, 
totally unlike all other living forms. The little mass of protoplasm 


HOW PROTOPLASM WORKS. 


31 


which swims in a drop of stagnant water is at one end of the scale 
of being, and man, with his magnificent and wonderfully complicated 
mechanism stanos at the other. The two are connected by an unbro¬ 
ken chain of living forms which rise in complexity and superiority in 
regular gradations from the living atom in the speck of green scum to 
the human form divine at the summit of the scale. 

The scale of life includes all living forms, not simply animals, as 
might be easily supposed. In all, protoplasm remains the same, al¬ 
ways apparently identical, yet sufficiently different to give to the 
forms of life which it helps to constitute, individuality of existence 
and characteristic properties. 

How Protoplasm Works. —See Figs. 1 to 8. There is nothing more 
interesting in all the realm of science than to watch with a microscope 
the operations of protoplasm. Let us study this wonderful phenom¬ 
enon for a few minutes. In anticipation of wanting material for such 
a study, a few weeks ago we pulled a handful of grass from the lawn 
in front of our office, and placing it in a platter half filled with water, 
put it in a warm place. Now we bring out the platter and find that 
the grass has undergone partial decomposition. With a glass tube we 
draw up a few drops of the dirty-looking fluid in which the half de¬ 
composed grass is submerged, and placing a single tiny drop upon a 
clean slip of glass we put it in the focus of a powerful microscope. 
Adjusting the glass and the light perfectly, we soon see sundry shreds 
of brown grass, and numerous floating particles of dust and other for¬ 
eign matter of no particular interest. If we had not sought a similar 
view many times before, we should soon put aside the instrument and 
turn our attention to something more attractive ; but we have learned 
to look a little sharper, and now we are rewarded by seeing just what 
we were in search of, curious little round masses so transparent as to 
be almost invisible. They are not very numerous, but scattered here 
and there about the field. Presently we perceive that some are chang¬ 
ing their form. A moment ago the first one we inspected was as 
round as a watch crystal ; now it has become elliptical in form. A 
few minutes later we look again, and it has stretched itself out into a 
long filament like an angle-worm. Presently it begins to draw itself 
up into a round mass again; and before we can write it, it has as¬ 
sumed its original shape, but has changed its position. That is the 
way the little creature moves about. It makes itself into the shape 
of a worm and then crawls j ust as a worm does, by making one end 


32 


ANATOMY , PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE . 


fast and drawing the rest of the body up. But what does it move 
about for ? Why may it not remain stationary ? Shortly we shall 
see if we watch carefully. Even now the reason is evident. Reader, 
just peep over our shoulder a moment. Put your eye down to the 
eye-piece of our microscope. Do you see the little fellow ? Look 
sharp, and you will. A few seconds ago it was round as a full moon. 
Now there is a little pocket in one side. The pocket is growing 



Fig. 1. 


Fig-. 2. 







the centers are nuclei. 

Figs. 2, 3, and 4 show different varieties of cells. 

Figs. 5, 6, and 7, show how cells divide or multiply. 

Fig. 8 is a representation of the manner in which cells unite by their arms to form capillary 
vessels. 


deeper and deeper. What is the object of such a curious procedure ? 
Let us put on another eye-piece. Now we have magnified the object 
a million times. See how much larger it looks. Now look at the 
pocket. The mystery is solved. There is a little speck of food which 
the little creature wishes to get, and so he has made a pocket to put it 
in. The queerest part is to come yet, so we must watch patiently a 
moment more. Now the mouth of the pocket is closing up. Evi¬ 
dently the little fellow is afraid he may lose the precious morsel, and 



















INORGANIC AND ORGANIZED MATTER. 


33 


so he is going to shut the pocket to prevent its escape. Now the open¬ 
ing is closed, and before we are aware of it, the pocket itself has dis¬ 
appeared, and there is the little particle inside. This seems a miracu¬ 
lous process, hut it is the peculiar way these little creatures have of 
taking food. When they wish to eat, they make a mouth or a stom¬ 
ach on purpose. If we wait a few minutes we shall see that the lit¬ 
tle particle taken in has disappeared. It has been digested. Thus 
the lowest forms of life can perform some of the same functions which 
higher animals and vegetables perform, hut by much simpler processes. 

The smaller living creatures are, the more remarkable seem to be 
their powers. As we become better acquainted with protoplasm, it 
does not seem so strange after all that it should be capable of making 
a plant, painting a flower, building a tree, or even of forming a man; 
and that is just what it does. How, we shall see further on when we 
study the various tissues of the body. Let us now consider some of 
the principal differences between inorganic and organized or living 
matter. 

Differences between Inorganic and Organized Matter. —Mat¬ 
ter that does not manifest life in any form is called inorganic; living 
matter is said to be organized, because life depends upon organization. 
The following table exhibits the principal differences between these 
two forms of matter:— 

INORGANIC MATTER. 

1. Not alive. 

2. Usually has angular outlines. 

3. Has a crystalline structure. 

4. Grows by accretion. 

5. Does not reproduce itself. 

6. Does not ferment or decay. 

1. Inorganic matter, such as sand, rocks, and all forms of mineral, 
earthy, and gaseous bodies and chemical compounds, never exhibit 
the peculiar phenomena which are commonly known as life. These 
phenomena are confined wholly to plants and animals. 

2. Nearly all inorganic objects, unless artificially modified in form, 
have angular outlines, being usually bounded by straight lines. Or¬ 
ganized bodies are bounded by curved and graceful outlines. 

3. Most inorganic bodies are crystalline in structure, or are made 
up of particles which at some time have been crystals. Organized 
bodies, on the other hand, are generally composed of cells. A cell 

3 


ORGANIZED MATTER. 

Alive. 

Characterized by rounded forms. 
Has a cellular structure. 

Grows by assimilation. 
Reproduces itself. 

Ferments or decays. 


34 ANATOMY , PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

consists of a mass of protoplasm, which is sometimes surrounded by a 
thin wall. 

4. Inorganic bodies grow by accretion, that is, by additions to the 
outside, of matter of the same kind. The increase in size of a snow¬ 
ball is a good illustration of growth by accretion. Organized bodies, 
on the contrary, grow by assimilation, that is, by taking into them¬ 
selves, from the outside, matter of an unlike character and making it 
into their own kind of tissue. Thus, a plant grows by taking in food 
through its roots and leaves; an animal, by taking food into its stom¬ 
ach, assimilation taking place in both. 

5. Reproduction is a process wholly peculiar to organized beings. 
Stones never reproduce their kind. All organized bodies possess the 
power to create new beings like themselves. Reproduction is really 
a process of creation, and as such is the most wonderful of all the 
phenomena of life. 

6. Fermentation and decay are processes by which a living organ¬ 
ism returns to the inorganic state, which is commonly known as death. 
As inorganic bodies do not possess life, of course they cannot lose it. 

The classification of all objects into inorganic and organized is not 
strictly correct, since this division does not include a peculiar class of 
substances not strictly belonging to either of the two mentioned, since 
it possesses some of the properties of each. These substances may be 
distinguished as organic. They are not organized since they have 
not a cellular structure, and are often crystalline; yet they are man¬ 
ifestly not wholly inorganic, since they are subject to fermentation. 
Sugar, starch, fat, albumen, and sundry other substances which are 
generally known as proximate elements, belong to this class. 

Animals and Vegetables. —If we should scrape from the surface 
of an old watering-trough some of the slime which is commonly found 
in such places, and submit it to examination with the microscope, we 
should find it to be composed almost wholly of living creatures of al¬ 
most every imaginable form, possessing wonderful activity, and going 
through the various processes of life, common to higher orders of liv¬ 
ing beings. Should the question be asked, Are these curious organ¬ 
isms animals or vegetables ? we might find it more difficult to 
answer than would be at first imagined. Very likely we should at 
first call them all animals, since they appear to be swimming about, 
seemingly possessing volition as distinctly developed as in fishes, birds, 
and larger animals. But a more careful study of the subject would 


DISTINCTIONS BETWEEN MAN AND BEAST. 


35 


show us our mistake. The general ideas regarding the distinctions 
between animals and vegetables hold good only regarding the higher 
orders of animals and vegetables. In the lower orders nearly all of 
these distinctions disappear. For example, it is generally supposed 
that animals alone possess the power of locomotion, vegetables remain¬ 
ing stationary wherever they happen to begin their growth. This is 
not true with the lower orders, as microscopic vegetables move about 
in the water as freely, and apparently with as much volitionary 
power, as animals. These minute plants are indeed actually provided 
with organs for swimming or otherwise propelling themselves in the 
water. The same discrepancy is found respecting the other distinc¬ 
tions formerly laid down. The difference between the two classes is, 
in fact, finally narrowed down to a mere question of diet. If care¬ 
fully watched, the various minute organisms under observation will 
be seen to take different kinds of food. Individuals of one class draw 
nutriment from the inorganic matters held in solution in the fluid in 
which they float; those of the other subsist upon solid particles of 
organized matter, perhaps even indulging in an occasional meal upon 
creatures of their own kind. Here is the primary distinction which, 
with a single exception, holds good with all the various species of ani¬ 
mals and vegetables: vegetables feed upon inorganic matter, animals 
upon organized matter. There is no exception to this rule among 
animals; but among vegetables there is the one exception of the class 
of cryptogamous plants known as fungi , which subsist upon organic 
and organized matter instead of upon inorganic. 

Distinctions between Man and Beast. —Man is an animal, but 
is not a beast; at least he should not be a beast, though some men 
will insist in placing themselves on a level with the brute creation. 
Man stands at the head of the animal kingdom, the peer of all animate 
creatures, but not above and outside of the great family of animal ex¬ 
istence. Although man is an animal, and as such is related to all the 
lower orders of animal life, yet he possesses faculties and powers 
which are not only superior in degree, but some which are totally 
different in kind from any enjoyed by the lower orders. In order 
that we may correctly understand man’s relation to the rest of the 
animate, creation we must consider the difference between him and 
lower animals. Without giving attention to minor points, the fol¬ 
lowing may be stated as the most prominent features of difference:— 

1. Man has a chin; the beast has none. 


86 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


2. Man stands erect; no beast naturally assumes the erect position. 

8. Man has a conscience, the expression of his moral organs; the 
beast has none, not possessing moral faculties. 

1. The anatomical difference mentioned, the fact that man has a 
chin while no lower animal has, is an interesting fact, especially when 
considered in connection with the fact that idiots who are bom such 
usually have retreating chins. Indeed, all the examples of this class 
we have ever seen presented so slight a prominence of the inferior 
maxilla that they could scarcely be said to possess a chin. It must 
not be supposed, however, that it is possible to determine a person’s 
mental capacity by the size of his chin, although the chin is undoubt¬ 
edly a valuable index to character. 

2. There are animals which naturally progress upon two legs only, 
as birds and some few other animals. Monkeys and various quadra- 
peds have been trained to w^alk upon two limbs; but in none of these 
instances is the erect attitude assumed. Indeed, the anatomical struct¬ 
ure of all animals below man in the scale of being is such that the 
erect position is not only unnatural but impossible. 

8. By far the most important distinction between man and his in¬ 
ferior relatives is the third difference noted, that which relates to the 
conscience. The old distinction that man has reason, while the beast 
has only instinct, will not at the present day stand the test of logical 
criticism. Scientific investigations have shown that the beast has 
reason as well as man. Indeed, it may be readily shown that man 
possesses instinct, though in less degree than the brute. The fact is 
now well established that both man and beast have both reason and 
instinct, reason predominating in man, and instinct in the beast. 
The real intellectual distinction is, as before remarked, that man has 
a conscience while the beast has not, being devoid of moral organs. 

The objection will be offered to this view, that dogs and some other 
of the higher animals sometimes show a knowledge of right and 
wrong. This leads necessarily to the consideration of the question,— 

What is Right, and What is Wrong ?—Undoubtedly con¬ 
science is the recognition of right and of wrong. If we can deter¬ 
mine what is right and what is wrong, we shall then be able to de¬ 
cide what conscience is. Probably no better definition for right can 
be framed than the simple one, “ obedience to law.” Wrong is mani¬ 
festly the reverse. Conscience, then, involves the recognition of a 
law, and also the recognition of the obligation to obey that law. No 


WHAT IS RIGHT AND WHAT IS WRONG. 


37 


brute has the power to do this. If he possessed a sufficiently high 
degree of intelligence to enable him to recognize the existence of law, 
which he does not, he has no conscience to inform him of his duty to 
obey that law. It is for this reason that a brute is not morally re¬ 
sponsible. If he possessed moral faculties, he would be morally re¬ 
sponsible as much as is man. A man is responsible to the laws of di¬ 
gestion, because he has an organ of digestion. A beast is subject to 
the same laws, and for the same reason. Man is morally responsible 
because he has moral faculties. The beast cannot be morally responsi¬ 
ble, because he does not possess moral faculties. The seeming exhibi¬ 
tions of knowledge of right and wrong on the part of dogs and other 
lower animals on careful examination will prove in every case to be 
prompted by hope of reward or fear of punishment, or some other 
similar incentive. A dog can be taught to do things very contrary 
to his nature by appealing to his sense of fear or some other faculty 
stronger than the one suppressed. There is in this no recognition 
of obligation to law. The brute classifies actions not as right or 
wrong, but as what will bring reward or pleasure and what will bring 
punishment or suffering. Much that passes for conscientiousness 
among human beings is equally distinct from the exercise of true con¬ 
science. True conscience recognizes right and wrong on their own 
merits without regard for consequences, either rewards or penalties. 

The fact that man possesses a will does not make him morally re¬ 
sponsible, since lower animals possess a will as well as man. Moral 
responsibility consists not in the power to do right or wrong, but in 
the power to discriminate between that which is lawful and that 
which is unlawful. No difference in kind can be shown to exist be¬ 
tween the human will and that of brutes, the only difference being 
one of degree. 

Thus it appears that the possession of a conscience or of a moral 
nature is the true mental characteristic of the human species, and not 
the power of thought or the possession of will. The importance of 
the will from a psychologic point of view is found to be far less than 
has generally been supposed when it is made to appear, as will be seen 
farther on, that desire, and not the will, is the primary incentive to 
action. 


38 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


GENERAL ANATOMY, OR HISTOLOGY. 

We must now confine our study more closely to the structure of the 
human body, and we shall begin where students in their study usu¬ 
ally leave off; viz., with the minute elements of which the body is 
composed, the tissues. All the various vital processes upon the proper 
performance of which the life of each individual depends, are per¬ 
formed by the minute tissue elements which we are about to consider, 
and cannot be understood without a careful study of these elements. 
Hence it seems to us to be eminently philosophical to begin at the 
foundation in order that we may secure an accurate knowledge of the 
subject under investigation. 

How a Human Machine is Built. —The human body may be re¬ 
garded as the most marvelously constructed of all mechanisms. Its 
parts are far more delicate, and their mutual adjustments infinitely 
more accurate than those of the most perfect chronometer ever con¬ 
structed. In order to understand the structure of this wonderful 
mechanism, let us go back to the earliest period of its existence. At 
this time we find the body to be but a mere speck of matter, a single 
cell, a delicate little mass of jelly-like protoplasm so small that a hun¬ 
dred, or two would not measure more than an inch if arranged in a row. 
Under proper circumstances this little cell grows, expands, and finally 
subdivides into two, through the operations of the protoplasm which 
chiefly composes it. The same activity occasions another subdivision, 
making four cells of the two. Still another division produces eight 
cells. Thus the processes of growth and division continue until the one 
original cell has developed into hundreds, even thousands and millions, 
under the active working of the protoplasm, which is the chief compo¬ 
nent of the cells and the potent agent in their activities. Develop¬ 
ment and division still continue while a new process of folding and 
reduplication is set up, layers of cells being formed, groups and sub¬ 
groups being set off, which develop into special systems and organs in 
accordance with the wants of the organism, until by and by the whole 
complex organism which we call man is developed. Throughout the 
whole process, protoplasm is the active agent, the skillful workman 
that builds and fashions and molds the crude material out of which 
human tissue is made and brought into its final delicate and won¬ 
drous harmony and beauty. 


THE ANATOMICAL ELEMENTS. 


39 


Let us now study with greater care the mode of working. The 
little masses of protoplasm already described are untiring workers. 
They also work in a great diversity of ways. For instance, a single, 
mass of protoplasm will sometimes build a delicate wall about itself, 
when it becomes a true cell, being shut up in a tiny house of its own 
construction. The protoplasmic body may remain in its self-made 
prison during its whole life, and die there; or through a wonderful 
property it possesses it may escape from its prison cell by passing di¬ 
rectly through the wall, and proceed to build other cells similar to the 
first, thus building a large number in the course of its lifetime. An 
army of protoplasmic bodies working in this way may in time con¬ 
struct a huge tree. Indeed, it is in exactly this manner that trees are 
built. 

But protoplasm does not always operate in this way. In animals, 
particularly, it usually works in a different fashion. Instead of build¬ 
ing a wall about itself, it makes fibres, tubes, bands, and a great di¬ 
versity of other structures, such as are needed in a complicated mech¬ 
anism like the human organism. The structures thus formed in the 
construction of the human body are known as anatomical elements. 
These we will now describe. 

The Anatomical Elements. —Notwithstanding the great com¬ 
plexity of the human organism, its great variety of structure, and the 
wonderful diversity of function performed by its different parts, it is 
wholly made up of a very few simple elementary structures, not more 
than six or at most seven in number. These may be divided into two 
classes: 1. Those which possess a very low grade of life, being sim¬ 
ply useful in supporting or holding together, or protecting more 
highly vitalized and more important parts ; and, 2. Those possessed of 
a high degree of vitality, being chiefly composed of protoplasm, and 
upon which all the activities of the system really depend. The first 
class consists of the connective tissues, comprising the two varieties of 
fibrous tissue, adipose tissue, osseous tissue, and cartilaginous tissue; 
the second class comprises nervous and muscular tissue. We will now 
proceed to describe each of these tissue elements separately. 

White Fibrous Tissue. —Fig. 9. This, the most abundant of all the 
anatomical elements in the body, when viewed under the microscope is 
found to be composed of minute fibres varying in thickness from one 
forty-thousandth (toAuu)* f° one twelve-thousandth an inch 

in diameter, and of varying length. The fibres are white in color, and 



40 


ANATOMY , PHYSIOLOGY , AND HYGIENE. 



Fig-. 9. White Fibrous Tissue. 


Yellow Elastic Tissue. —Fig. 10, 


wholly inelastic. White fibrous tissue constitutes the chief element of 
tendons, ligaments, and other parts where firmness is required. This 
element is also found intimately interwoven with all the other ele¬ 
ments of the body, serving to unite 
them together and give firmness 
and solidity to the whole. 

White fibrous tissue possesses 
the curious property of being sol¬ 
uble in some acids. Acetic acid 
will dissolve its fibres and cause 
them to entirely disappear from 
view under the microscope. 

This tissue is perhaps the next 
most abundant element, being found in greater or less abundance in 
all parts of the body. It differs much from white fibrous tissue, its fi¬ 
bres being yellow in color, and 
very elastic. The fibres instead 
of being: straight are more or less 
curled and branched, and are 
much larger than those of white 
fibrous tissue. Yellow elastic 
tissue is quite abundant in the 
skin and all other animal mem¬ 
branes, to which the hig;h degree of elasticitv of membranes is due. 
The ligamentum nuchce, a ligament located at the back of the neck, 
is composed almost wholly of this tissue. In the ox and other grazing 
animals this ligament is greatly developed, and serves the animal a 
very important purpose, holding the head in position without the 
action of muscles when the animal is not reaching down for its food. 
In the giraffe this ligament is six feet in length, and possesses such a 

high degree of elasticity that it is said that it can be stretched to the 

length of twenty feet. 



Tig. 10. Y ellow Fibrous Tissue. 


Connective Tissue. —Fig. 11. This tissue is not an anatomical ele¬ 
ment, being wholly made up of the two former. It constitutes a great 
share of the bulk of the body, forming, in fact, a framework by which 
the various parts are held together, and serving to bind together the 
several elements of which the different organs are composed. The skin 
and other membranes are almost wholly made up of connective tissue. 
The white and yellow fibres are in this compound tissue interwoven 



















THE ANATOMICAL ELEMENTS. 


41 


together in such a way as to form a fine network with meshes. These 
interspaces are usually occupied by the fluid part of the blood, which 
bathes the minute elements of the body in every part, and supplies 
them with the needed nutriment. It is in these spaces that the 
lymph channels, the set of vessels which run from all parts of the 
body toward the center of the circulation, have their beginning. In 
general dropsy or oedema, these spaces are distended with serum. 
Cases sometimes occur in which the spaces become filled with air, as 
in injuries to the lungs in which the pulmonary cavity is made to 
communicate with the connective- 
tissue spaces, when by a sort of 
pumping action the process of res¬ 
piration has been known to cause 
enormous distention of tne whole 
body. Some years ago a couple of 
unnatural parents were arrested 
for the most revolting cruelty to a 
little girl whom they were exhib¬ 
iting about the country. The child 
was shown as a monstrosity, its 
head being distended to enormous 
proportions. Upon investigation 
of the case, it was found that the child’s scalp had been gradually 
distended to its unnatural proportions by means of inflation with air 
through a pipe-stem. It is a well-known practice with butchers to 
thus distend the connective tissue of sheep in dressing them for the 
market, by which means they are rendered much more attractive than 
they would otherwise be. 

Adipose Tissue. —Fig. 12. This tissue really consists of connective 
tissue in which the spaces be¬ 
tween the fibres have been filled 
with fat cells, the size of which 
is variable, but probably aver¬ 
ages about one one-hundred-and- 
twenty-fifth ( T j 5 ) of an inch. 

Adipose tissue is found in greater 
or less quantities in nearly all 
parts of the organism, but par¬ 
ticularly just beneath the skin, 



Fig:. 12. Adipose Tissue, showing fat cells 
deposited in the connective-tissue spaces. 



Fig 1 . 11. Connective Tissue, showing spa¬ 
ces produced by drawing the fibres apart. 

















42 


ANATOMY , PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


where a layer is deposited seemingly as a protection from cold. Adi¬ 
pose tissue is much more abundant in winter than in summer, being 
then needed much more than in the warmer seasons of the year. 

Cartilage Tissue. —This tissue, in its typical form, consists of a* 
homogeneous, structureless base in which are scattered, with a consid¬ 
erable degree of regularity, cav¬ 
ities in which are found cells 
which during life fill the entire 
cavity. The structure of this 
peculiar tissue will be readily 
seen in Fig. 13. Cartilage is 
chiefly found in adults at the 
ends of bones, where a moder¬ 
ate degree of elasticity with 
very slight sensibility to press¬ 
ure is required. These proper¬ 
ties are admirably supplied in 
cartilage. In early life the bones are composed of cartilage, the 
change from cartilage to bone taking place during the period of 
growth. After complete ossification has taken place, no further devel¬ 
opment can occur. 

A peculiar kind of cartilage known as fibro-cartilage is found be¬ 
tween the vertebrae, and at some other points where there is a very 
limited degree of motion. Cartilage is in some few instances devel¬ 
oped in tendons and even in the skin and other tissues, where it is 
always more or less intimately blended with connective tissue. In old 
age, cartilage sometimes undergoes a process of hardening from the de¬ 
posit of lime, which is known as calcification. 

Osseous or Bony Tissue. —In Figs. 14 and 15 will be seen an ex¬ 
cellent representation of the minute structure of bony tissue. The 
large irregular canals seen in Fig. 15, and represented by circular open¬ 
ings in Fig. 14, are the blood-vessels of bone, here known as Haversian 
canals. The dark spaces with the lines radiating from them are 
lacunae and canaliculi , together forming the bone corpuscles. Fig. 14 
shows very beautifully the admirably systematic arrangement of these 
corpuscles, and the manner in which they communicate with each 
other and with the blood channels. The dark spaces are cavities in 
the bone, and the small lines running out from them represent minute 
canals by which they are connected. Each cavity is occupied by a 



Fig:. 13. Cartilage Tissue, showing the 
characteristic cells. 



THE ANATOMICAL ELEMENTS. 


43 



mass of pro¬ 
toplasm, a cell, 
which puts out 
a number of 
protoplasmic 
fingers by 
which it touch¬ 
es other cells 
near by; and 
thus the mi¬ 
nute creatures 
which inhabit 
th ese little 
caves in the 

Figr. 14 . Transverse section of bone as seen with the microscope. bone are en¬ 
abled to communicate with one another through all its parts. The 
business of these little creatures is to develop the bone and to keep 
it in good repair. They have charge of the bone-building business of 
the body, each having its par¬ 
ticular little section of bone to & 

look after. The portion of the 
tissue surrounding the cavities 
and canals, and forming the 
great bulk of the tissue, is made 
up of a curious compound of 
animal matter with various salts 
in a partially organized state, 
the chief of which are phosphate 
and carbonate of lime. The evi¬ 
dence is that they are in a state 
of partial organization, a condi¬ 
tion which might be termed or¬ 
ganic. Some eminent observers 
say that in very old age the 
protoplasmic bodies which oc¬ 
cupy the cells of bone tissue 
die, the spaces being then filled 
with air. 

Osseous tissue forms the skeleton of the body, the bony framework 



Fig. 15. Magnified view of a longitudinal 
section of bone; a a a, Haversian Canals. 
















44 


ANATOMY, F BY BIOLOGY , A AT) HYGIENE. 


K41 


upon which the soft parts are built, together with a portion of the 
substance of the teeth. In lower animals, bony tissue is also depos¬ 
ited in the skin, the white of the eye, and other soft parts. Very 
singularly, it also happens in some cases of disease that bony tissue is 
developed in the soft tissues. 

Muscular Tissue. —There are two varieties of muscular tissue. 
One consists of long, unbranching fibres, marked by transverse 
lines called strice, the other of short, branching, spindle-shaped fibres 

which are smooth or 
unstriated. Fig. 16 
represents those of 
the first class, or stri¬ 
ated muscular fibres, 
which compose the 
greater portion of the 
soft parts of the body, 
constituting the lean 
meat of animals. 
They can be easily 
seen with a strong 
microscope, and are 
very interesting ob¬ 
jects of study. This 
variety is sometimes 
distinguished from 
the other by the dif¬ 
ference in action, 
being called volun¬ 
tary muscular tissue because it composes all muscles which are un¬ 
der the immediate control of the will. A striated muscular fibre 
consists of a tubular sheath containing the active muscular substance, 
which appears to be divided into minute beaded fibres, although the 
exact ultimate structure of these primary fibrillae is not very well un¬ 
derstood. 

Non-striated or involuntary] muscular fibres are found in mus¬ 
cular organs not under control of the will, as the gullet, the stom¬ 
ach, intestines, bladder, and urinary passages. The form and simple 
structure of this kind of tissue are sufficiently well seen in Fig. 17, so 



Fig. 16. Voluntary Muscular Tis¬ 
sue, showing smallest fibers with striae. 


Fig. 17. Involuntary, 
or non-striated Muscu¬ 
lar Fibre. 

















THE ANATOMICAL ELEMENTS. 


45 


that no further description is necessary. It should he mentioned that 
the heart, although an involuntary muscle, is composed of a muscular 
tissue peculiar to itself, its fibres in some respects resembling both 
voluntary and involuntary muscular fibres. This is probably owing 
to the physiological fact that voluntary fibres contract with rapidity 
and vigor, while the contraction of involuntary fibres is slow and less 
vigorous. However, voluntary muscles soon tire by continuous exer¬ 
cise, while involuntary fibres are capable of maintaining their activity 
for a long time. The heart admirably combines both properties. 




Fig. 18. Nerve Cells, showing pro¬ 
longations, or poles, three of which are 
prolonged to form nerve fibres. 


Fig. 19. c. Nerve Fibre moderately mag¬ 
nified ; a. Greatly magnified, showing fibrillae; 
b. Fibrilke magnified still more, showing 
beaded appearance. 


Nerve Tissue .—This is by all odds the most interesting, and per¬ 
haps the most important, of all the anatomical elements. As is the 
case with muscular tissue, there are two varieties of nerve tissue. 
These are familiarly known as cells and fibres, the gross distinctions 
between which may be readily seen by reference to Figs. 18 and 19. 

Nerve c£lls are irregularly shaped bodies of protoplasm, usually 
provided with one or more arms or projections of the same substance. 
In the center of the cell may be seen a nucleus, and, usually, within 
the nucleus another smaller center, called a nucleolus. The branching 
arms are termed poles. Nerve cells are found chiefly in the brain and 
spinal cord; but they are also found in groups known as ganglia in va¬ 
rious parts of the body. They are the generators of nerve force, and 
correspond to the batteries used in telegraphy. 









46 


ANATOMY , PHYSIOLOGY , .4AB HYGIENE. 


Nerve fibres are composed of a bundle of minute fibres, which 
forms the axis-cylinder , invested by a peculiar substance which acts 
as an insulator. The nerve fibrillae are minute filaments of proto¬ 
plasm, being simple prolongations of the protoplasm of nerve cells in 
the brain and spinal cord. These filaments are continuous from their 
starting-point in the nerve cells to the part of the body, near or re¬ 
mote, in which they terminate. Thus there is formed a complete 
network of protoplasmic threads through all parts of the body, con¬ 
necting every minute portion of the system with the central organ, 
the brain, much like the network of telegraph wire which may be seen 
traversing the air in every direction in any large city, connecting its 
most distant parts with the central office. 

When it is understood that all thought, feeling, sensation, and even 
all motion and vital action of every sort, is dependent upon nerves and 
nerve cells, it will be granted that we have not overstated in calling 
this the most important of all the tissues of the body. 

Membranes .—Membranes are chiefly made up of connective tis¬ 
sue. They are not anatomical elements, but simple combinations of 
elements. A membrane consists essentially of a layer of connective 
tissue which forms the basis, over which are spread several layers of 
cells, or protoplasmic bodies, called epithelium. Besides the skin, 
which is a form of membrane, there are three other kinds of mem¬ 
brane, mucous , serous , and synovial. Mucous membranes line cavities 
which communicate directly with the outside of the body, as the 
mouth and the whole digestive tract, the air passages, and the uri¬ 
nary cavities and passages. Serous membranes line closed cavities. 
Synovial membranes partially line the cavities of joints. Each of 
these several kinds of membrane, including the skin, secretes a fluid 
peculiar to itself. The skin produces perspiration, or sweat, by means 
of the sweat glands. Mucous membrane produces mucus, from its 
mucous follicles. The serous membrane produces a serous fluid; and 
, the synovial membrane secretes a fluid for the lubrication of the 
joints. 

The cells, or epithelium, covering these various membranes, differ 
very considerably, and also differ on the same kind of membrane in 
different parts of the body. Some forms' of epithelium are exceed¬ 
ingly curious and interesting. For example, a kind known as ciliated 
epithelium is covered with delicate hairs which are kept in constant 
and rapid motion during the life of the cell. A small section of mu- 


GENERAL VIEW OF THE HUMAN MECHANISM. 


47 


cous membrane having this kind of 
cells when viewed under a micro¬ 
scope presents the appearance of a 
field of grain waving in the breeze. 

Specimens of this kind of cells can 
be obtained for examination from 
the air passage or from the mouth 
of a frog, or, better, from what is 
termed “ the beard” of a live oys- Flf? 20- Spectmen9 ot EpitheUaI Cells 
ter. Fig. 20 exhibits a number of of various sorts, 

varieties of epithelial cells. 

As the other tissues will receive ample consideration in connection 
with the description of the various organs in which they are found, 
we will not devote more space here to the subject of general anatomy, 
or histology, although it is a subject of great interest. 

A General Yiew of the Human Mechanism. —Having now 
viewed quite minutely the anatomical elements, the brick and mortar, 
so to speak, of the human body, let us briefly glance at this wonderful 
machine as a whole, before beginning a minute description of its sev¬ 
eral organs and their functions, as by this means we shall be better 
able to understand the relations of each part to the whole. 

The human body may be considered as a machine constructed for 
the purpose of thinking, feeling, and acting; at any rate, these three 
things comprise all the capabilities of any human being. For the per¬ 
formance of these functions there is necessary,— 

1. A set of organs capable of thinking and feeling. This we have 
in the nervous system. Certain of the nerve cells of the brain are un¬ 
doubtedly endowed with the power to think. Their activity is 
thought. By means of certain accessory apparatus, the organs of 
sense, which comprise hearing, sight, taste, smell, touch, the sense of 
weight and the power to distinguish temperature, the thought or mind 
cells of the brain are able to take cognizance of external things; in 
other words, to feel or receive sensations. Through the almost infinite 
ramifications of the delicate nerve fibrillae already described, all parts 
of the body are not only made tributary to the brain, but are brought 
under its domination. 

2. There is needed a special set of organs by means of which 
motions of various sorts can be executed. This want is exactly sup¬ 
plied by the muscular system , acting in connection with the bones 




48 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY , AND HYGIENE. 


and the nervous system. The bones serve as points of attachment 
for the muscles, by which they are employed as levers. The nervous 
system furnishes the impulse, and the muscles execute the order by 
contracting in accordance with the directions given to them through 
the nerve telegraphic communications from the brain. 

If the human machine operated without friction or wear, this would 
be all we should require to perform all the necessary functions of in¬ 
dividual life; but every thought, every sensation, every motion or 
muscular action, is at the expense of tissue. The vital machinery 
wears and wastes as do all other mechanisms. This necessitates a 
constant supply of fresh material, and a system of repair. The new 
material is supplied by the circulatory apparatus , which comprises 
the heart and the blood-vessels, the chief object of which is to dis¬ 
tribute the material for repairs wherever it may be needed through¬ 
out the system, the nutrient fluid, the blood, being itself replenished 
through the digestive apparatus , which is specially designed for the 
purpose. Unlike any machine of human invention or construction, 
this wonderful mechanism possesses the power, within certain limits, 
to repair itself and keep its own parts in order. Each particular part 
possesses the power to repair and renovate itself; and so long as this 
power remains intact, provided the proper amount of new material is 
furnished, so long will the machine continue to run. 

But our machine is not yet wholly complete. The waste products 
which result from the wear and tear of the tissues in action must be 
disposed of. If allowed to remain in the system, they would very 
soon obstruct the delicate machinery so that proper action would be 
impossible, and activity would speedily cease. This necessitates a 
special set of cleansing organs to dispose of waste and worn-out par¬ 
ticles. This want is supplied in the eliminative system , comprising 
the lungs, which throw off a pound of gaseous filth every day, the 
skin, which is almost equally active, the kidneys, the liver, and the 
bowels. These five active organs are constantly at work removing 
from the body substances that are of no use, and which will obstruct 
and retard vital action if retained. The human machine clears itself 
of obstructions. The blood also plays an important part in this work, 
since in addition to distributing nutriment where needed, it bathes 
and washes every tissue free from the obstructions which may have 
accumulated in or about it and hurries them off to the proper organ 
which is designed to eliminate or remove them. 


GENERAL VIEW OF THE HUMAN MECHANISM. 


49 


As a certain temperature is necessary for the perfect action of this 
delicate mechanism, nature has so planned that all the various proc¬ 
esses named shall result in the production of animal heat, so that this 
want is supplied at the least possible expense to the vital economy. 
As uniformity of temperature is also necessary for the proper per¬ 
formance of the various bodily functions, special means are provided 
by which a deficient supply of heat may be economized and a super¬ 
abundance rapidly dispersed so as to protect the body from extremes. 

So far as the individual man is concerned, the mechanism is now 
complete; but as the machine ultimately wears out, it is important 
that there should be some means provided for the perpetuation of 
the race. This necessity is met by the reproductive apparatus , by 
which new individuals, possessing essentially the same qualities and 
capable of performing the same functions, may be produced. As we 
shall elsewhere see, this is one of the most remarkable of all the 
bodily functions. Indeed, the mysteries of generation are as much 
beyond the power of the human mind to solve as are the problems 
which cluster about the origin of all things. In his reproductive 
function, man approaches nearest to the Creator, though in this he 
only uses a power delegated to him by the Creator in common with 
all other living things. 

Thus we have complete, in every detail, this marvelous human 
machine, which stands as an unanswerable argument against all the 
sophistry that can be invented to sustain atheism, establishing 
beyond the possibility of cavil that there must have been at some 
time at work an intelligent power as much superior to the highest 
type of human power and intellect as this delicate mechanism is above 
the most ingenious piece of workmanship the most skilled mechanic 
has ever produced. 

Having taken a general survey of the human system, its vari¬ 
ous systems of organs and their general functions, let us now look a 
little more carefully into the details of structure and function, so that 
by a thorough understanding of the nature of the various parts and 
organs of the body we may be the better able to understand what 
means are necessary to preserve them in health and to cure and pre¬ 
vent disease. Our attention is naturally directed to the bones, which, 
as we have already seen, constitute the framework of the body. 

4 


50 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


THE BONES. 


Although the bones are the firmest parts of the system, they are 


not, as many suppose, possessed of a 



Fig-. 21. The Skeleton. 



Fig. 22. Portion of a long bone, showing 
the periosteum slit up and separated 
from the bone. 


very small degree of life. Mere 
lifeless sticks would come far 
short of performing the func¬ 
tions of bones. While not as 
highly vitalized as some of the 
more rapidly changing tissues, 
they possess sufficient vital ac¬ 
tivity to enable them to perform 
their functions and to repair in¬ 
juries which may occur. All 
the bones of the body taken to¬ 
gether form the skeleton, for a 
representation of which see Fig. 
21 or Plate I. 

Structure of Bones.— Bones 
are made up of a peculiar struc¬ 
ture, which has been alreadv de- 
scribed. The osseous tissue 
proper is covered over with a 
tough membrane called the per¬ 
iosteum, and commonly known 
as the whit-leather. Fig. 22. 
This membrane supplies blood¬ 
vessels to the bone, and it is 
from it that the bone grows. 
Bones are classified according to 

O 

their form into long, short, fiat, 
and irregular. Long bones are 
hollow, having a canal running 
through a greater or lesser por¬ 
tion of their length, which is 
called the medullary canal. 
This canal is lined with a mem¬ 
brane similar to the periosteum. 












VARIETIES OF JOINTS. 


51 



called the endosteum, and is filled with 
medullary substance, which consists of 
blood-vessels, nerves, fat, and connective 
tissue. The shaft of long bones is com¬ 
posed of a dense, firm structure, called com¬ 
pact tissue, while the expanded ends are 
chiefly made up of a looser structure, known 
as cancellous tissue. See Fig. 23. Short, 
fiat, and irregular bones are composed of 
a shell of compact tissue, the interior being 
spongy in character. 

The periosteum and the medullary sub¬ 
stance, or marrow, of bone are very impor¬ 
tant portions of these organs, since injury 
to either of these parts is quite certain to 
be followed by death of the bone on ac¬ 
count of interference with its nutrition. 

The Joints. —The points at which bones Fig-. 23. The upper part of the 

1-i n i cut shows a longitudinal section of 

come together are called articulations, or the large end of a bone. At 3 is to 

joints. The parts which enter into the for- b ® seeu a transvcrsc ® e ® t:on of the 

° # ... . . shaft, showing the medullary canal. 

mation of joints, in addition to the bones, are 

cartilage, synovial membrane, and ligaments. Wherever bones come 
in contact with any degree of motion, the surfaces of contact are cov¬ 
ered with a dense, elastic, non-sensitive substance known as cartilage. 
In order that the bones shall be held together in proper position, they 
are bound by firm bands of fibrous tissue, called ligaments, which are 
so arranged as to secure firmness without interfering with the nec- 
essary movements of the joint. In order to provide for the main¬ 
tenance of the joint in a healthy condition, a means is furnished for 
lubricating the articulating surfaces and thus lessening friction. The 
lubricating material is known as synovia, and is furnished by the syn¬ 
ovial membrane, with which every joint is provided for this purpose. 

Yarieties of Joints.—A number of different kinds of joints are 
illustrated in the human body, the most important of which are, the 
icingc joint, illustrated by the knee, the elbow, the fingers and toes; 
the ball-and-socket joint, of which the hip and shoulder joints are ex¬ 
amples; and the gliding or pi uniform joint, in which one flat surface 
glides over another, as in the short bones of the wrist and the ankle. 

Divisions of the Skeleton. —The skeleton is divided into three 
parts; viz., the head, the trunk, and the extremities. The number of 



52 


ANATOMY , PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


bones contained in each of these portions is as follows: The head, 
22 ; the trunk, 52; the extremities, upper and lower, 12C; making 200, 
the whole number of bones in the body. 


BONES OF THE HEAD, 



Fig. 24. The Skull, showing the sutures, or points 
of union between the several bones. 



Fig - . 25. The Skull, with the bones separated so as to 
show their shape. 1. Frontal; 2. Parietal; 3. Occip¬ 
ital; 4. Temporal; 5. Nasal; 6. Malar; 7. Superior 
Maxilla; 8. Lachrymal; 9. Inferior Maxilla. Several 
bones are not shown. 


Of the twenty-two bones 
forming the head, eight en- 
ter into the structure of the 
skull, or cranium, the re¬ 
maining fourteen forming the 

O O 

face. 

The Skull. —The cavity 
of the skull is designed for 
the reception and protection 
of the brain, a purpose to 
which it is most admirably 
adapted both by its general 
shape and its minute struct¬ 
ure. The bones of the skull 
each consist of two plates of 
compact tissue connected to¬ 
gether by a layer of very 
spongy tissue called diploe. 
See Fig. 26. This gives to 
the skull a degree of elastic¬ 
ity which it could not oth¬ 
erwise possess, thus protect¬ 
ing it 'from fracture, and also 
serves to deaden the effect of 
blows upon the head before 
the force has been transmit¬ 
ted to the delicate brain be¬ 
neath. The bones of the 
skull are firmly joined to¬ 
gether by means of sutures, 
which in infancy allow of 
some degree of motion; but 
as the skull assumes its full 
size, the sutures become 
knit together so firmly 










THE SKULL. 


53 


as to preclude the possibility of motion. It is owing to this fact that 
different nations are enabled by different modes of dressing the head to 
cause it to assume different shapes. For example, certain Indian tribes, 
by applying a flat surface to the forehead and binding it firmly in p'ace 
in early infancy, are enabled to 
produce a permanent flattening 
of the forehead. A class of the 
natives of India are noted for the 
peculiar cone-shaped form of the 
head which they produce by a 
similar process. 

A number of openings are 
found in the skull, the largest of 
which, called the foramen mag¬ 
num from its large size, is located 
in the inferior and back part, and 
affords a passage for the spinal 
cord. The numerous other smaller 
openings are for the passage’of blood-vessels and nerves. 

The interior of the cranial cavity presents many ridges, depressions, 
and processes, which correspond with the uneven surface of the brain, 

fills the cavity. 

The names and location of the eight bones forming the skull are, the 
occipital , which forms the whole posterior portion ; the two parietal , 
which chiefly form the sides and upper portion ; the two temporal , sit¬ 
uated low down upon the sides ; the frontal , forming the vdiole front 
portion of the skull; the ethmoid , which is placed in the lower part of 
the skull near the root of the nose ; and the sphenoid, which joins all 
the other bones together at the base. At birth it is usually the case that 
the frontal bone is in two parts, it being always formed in this way, the 
two halves being afterward joined together very early in life. At birth, 
ossification of the bones of the cranium has not fully taken place, the 
deficiency being very apparent at two points, one at the anterior portion 
of the head and the other at the upper and back part. At these points 
the covering of the brain is so thin that it yields readily to pressure, and 
the beating of the arteries can be easily felt. On this account, these 
points are commonly termed “ soft spots.” The medical term is fonta- 
nelles. As ossification progresses rapidly after birth, the fontanelles 
are soon closed up. 


which with its membranes exactly 



Fig-. 26. The Skull with the outer plate 
removed, showing the diploe and the channels for 
blood-vessels. 




54 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY , AND HYGIENE . 


The Bones of the Face. —The fourteen bones which form the 
face are named as follows: two nasal, two lachrymal, two malar or 
cheek-bones, two upper maxillary, two palate, two turbinated or 
spongy bones of the nose, the vomer, and the lower maxillary or un¬ 
der jaw-bone. 

The two nasal bones form the upper part or bridge of the nose, 
joining the frontal bone of the skull. They are small bones, and are 
lengthened out upon the sides of the nose by cartilage. 

The two lachrymal bones are so called because they contain a small 
canal which conveys the tears from the eye to the nose. They are 
situated at the inner corners of the eyes, and join the nasal bones. 

The malar or cheek-bones are situated at the outer and upper part 
of the face. In some nations, as the Tartars and North American In¬ 
dians, these bones are very prominent, giving an angular appearance to 
the features. 

The superior maxillary bones constitute the greater portion of the 
face, joining in front beneath the nose. They also form the greater 
portion of the roof of the mouth, and afford a place for the insertion 
of the sixteen upper teeth. Each of the maxillary bones has in its up¬ 
per portion a cavity of considerable size which is lined with mucous 
membrane, and communicates with the nasal cavity through a small 
opening. This cavity is known as the antrum of Highmore. It often 
becomes a seat of disease through the formation of abscesses and the 
production of polypi or other morbid growths, which occasion very 
great trouble and annoyance on account of the difficulty of gaining ac¬ 
cess to the diseased part. It is supposed that the object of these cav¬ 
ities is to improve the quality of the voice. 

The superior maxillary bones usually unite at birth or soon after,' 
being joined by two small intervening bones called intermaxillary, 
from their position. In case the maxillary and intermaxillary bones 
fail to unite, a fissure is left which usually extends down through the 
roof of the mouth as well as through the lip, producing a deformity 
which from its peculiar resemblance to the lip of a hare is known as 
hare-lip. When the deformity exists upon both sides it is known as 
double hare-lip. The only remedy is a surgical operation. 

The palate bones are small structures placed at the back part of 
the mouth, forming the upper part of the roof of the mouth and ex¬ 
tending upward to aid in forming a socket for the eye. 

The turbinated or spongy bones are located in the upper part of the 


THE VERTEBRAE. 


oo 


nostrils. They are very spongy in character, and by their scroll shape 
present an extensive surface for the nasal mucous membrane, in which 
are located the nerves of smell. 

The vomer derives its name from its resemblance to a plowshare. 
It is a thin, flat bone, and forms the septum of the nose. 

The inferior maxillary bone forms the lower jaw, in connection 
with the teeth which it carries in its upper portion. It is a somewhat 
Y-shaped bone, the apex of the angle being in front and forming the 
chin. The two lateral portions after extending backward about one- 
half their length take a somewhat abrupt turn upward, thus forming 
what is called the angle of the jaw. The upper ends of the ascending 
portions are joined by a hinge-like articulation to the skull. The socket 
of the joint being rather shallow, the bone not infrequently slips out of 
place in violent yawning or laughing, producing dislocation. The man¬ 
ner of remedying this difliculty will be fully described in the proper place. 

The length of the jaw gradually increases with the growth of other 
parts of the body, additional teeth being produced at the back part as 
there is room for them, so that in adult life we find sixteen full-sized 
teeth, whereas in childhood there are but ten small ones. The teeth 
are placed in sockets provided for them by the alveolar p>rocesses. 
When the teeth fall out, from disease or old age, the processes are usu¬ 
ally absorbed. It is this which occasions the peculiar prominence of 
the chin noticeable in elderly persons. 

The form and location of most of the bones of the face and skull 
will be better seen in Figs. 24 and 25 than they can be described. 

The teeth will be fully described in connection with the organs of 
digestion. 

O 

BONES OF THE TRUNK, 

The bones of the trunk consist of the vertebra , the ribs, the ster¬ 
num, and the pelvis. 

The Yertehrae. — Fig. 27. These bones are twenty-four in num¬ 
ber, and are arranged one above the other, forming a bony column 
called the vertebral or spinal column, which is the central axis of the 
body. Each vertebra (Fig. 28) is an irregularly shaped bone, the 
larger portion of which, called the body, is concave behind, convex 
in front, and nearly flat on its upper and lower surfaces. Pro¬ 
jecting from the back side of the body is a bony arch which has at 
the center behind a more or less distinct prominence known as the 


56 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY , AND HYGIENE. 



spine of the vertebra, or the spinous process. There are various 

other projections from the sides of the body and arch which serve as 

means for joining the vertebrae together and for the attachment of 

muscles. There is also noticeable a notch at the junction of the body 

and the arch on either side of the vertebrae, both 

above and below in most cases. When the vertebrae 

are arranged one above another in the spinal column, 

the bodies form a bony pillar, while the arches, being 

placed one above another, form a bony canal for the 

spinal cord. The notches before mentioned, being also 

superimposed one above another, form lateral open- 

* 

* 


Tig. S8. A vertical section of two contiguous Ver¬ 
tebrae. showing the spongy structure of the bodies, and 
the Fibro-Cartilage between them. 

ings through which the spinal nerves and blood-vessels 
may pass. Between each two vertebrae are placed 
discs of fibro-cartilage, the use of which will be seen 
farther on. 

The vertebrae of the spinal column are divided into 
three portions: the cervical, or neck portion, compris¬ 
ing the first seven, which form the neck, supporting 
the head; the dorsal, or back portion, which are connected with the 
ribs, consisting of twelve vertebrae; and the lumbar portion, the re¬ 
maining five, comprising the vertebrae of the loins. 

Each of these three classes of vertebrae possesses certain special 
characteristics by which they may be known; but as most of these 
are of merely anatomical interest, we will not stop to consider them, 
only noticing the interesting peculiarities of the first two vertebrae of 
the neck, those next the skull. The first vertebra, called the atlas 


Fie- 27. The 

spinal or vertebral 
column. 





THE THORAX. 


57 


(Fig. 29), instead of h tying a body, arch, and various processes, is 
simply a ring of bone made to fit the under part of the head, sur¬ 
rounding the foramen magnum. The articulation of this bone with 
the head is such as to admit of free motion backward and forward, 
hinge-fashion, but no lateral or rotary motion. The second vertebra 
is equally peculiar, having upon one side a large tooth-like promi¬ 
nence which fits into one side of the ring-shaped 
bone above, and provides for lateral or rotating 
motion of the head. This tooth-like promi¬ 
nence, known as the odontoid process , is kept 
in place, and prevented from injuring the deli¬ 
cate spinal cord which passes close beside it, by 
means of ligaments which inclose it and hold 

O 

it firmly in position. 

Another peculiarity worthy of mention is the fact that the arches 
of the cervical vertebrae being larger than in other parts, the spinal 
canal is larger in the neck than in any other part of its length. This 
is undoubtedly a wise provision of nature to allow of the greatest 
possible freedom of motion without injury to the delicate structures 
within. 

The skull itself may be considered as simply the expanded upper 
extremity of the spinal column, representing three or four vertebrae 
which have been consolidated and greatly modified. 



Fig-. 29. The first ver¬ 
tebra, called the Atlas. 


The Thorax. —This is a bony cavity formed by the spinal column 
behind, the sternum in front, and the ribs at the sides. It contains 
the lungs, heart, great blood-vessels, nerves, and other important or¬ 
gans. Having already described the vertebrae, we will now notice 

The Ribs .—These bones are twelve in number on each side. Oc¬ 
casionally there are found thirteen, instead of twelve, and sometimes 
there are but eleven. The ribs are joined, behind, to the sides of the 
vertebrae in such a manner as to allow a slight hinge motion. In 
front they are not united directly to any bone, but by means of an 
intervening piece of cartilage they are joined to the sternum. The 
first seven ribs, being united by separate cartilages, are called true 
ribs, while the last five, being joined to a single cartilage which unites 
them to the sternum, are called false ribs. The last one or two ribs, 
beino- sometimes not united to the sternum at all, are denominated 

O 

floating ribs. 

Along the lower and inner border of the ribs runs a groove in 


58 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY , AND HYGIENE . 

which are placed the nerves and blood-vessels of the chest walls, 
which are thus shielded from injury. The two edges of this groove 
serve as points of attachment for the two sets of muscles which fill 
the spaces between the ribs. 

Tice Sternum .—This bone, commonly called the breast-bone, is 
really made up of four separate parts, three of which are bony, being 
joined together by cartilage, the fourth and lower part being cartilag¬ 
inous, and known as the xiphoid or ensiform cartilage. The ster¬ 
num receives upon either side the cartilages of the seven upper ribs 
and the conjoined cartilage of the false ribs, together with the inner 
ends of the collar-bone, or clavicle. The object of the sternum is to 
brace and strengthen the ribs and clavicles, and help to inclose the 
chest. 

We should mention that the ensiform cartilage is very variable in 
its form, sometimes curving outward abruptly, causing a considerable 
prominence, and at other times curving inward. We have frequently 
been consulted by persons possessing some peculiarity of this organ 
who had been made to believe by quacks that they were suffering 
with some very severe malady. Not long ago we received a letter 
from a young lady, a former patient, who was in great distress, hav¬ 
ing been told by a physician whom she had consulted, or a man who 
called himself a physician and had practiced on the credulity of the 
people for many years, that she was suffering with cancer, and that 
she should by all means visit a surgeon at once and have the malig¬ 
nant growth removed. Suspecting that there was some blunder in 
the matter, we advised the young lady to visit us before having any 
operation performed, which she accordingly did; and greatly to her 
relief we were enabled to inform her that no operation was required. 
The ignorant doctor had mistaken an unusually prominent ensiform 
cartilage for a cancer, probably considering his diagnosis confirmed by 
the fact that there was extreme tenderness just beneath the end of 
the sternum, due to abnormal sensibility of the stomach, the patient 
suffering from painful dyspepsia. Having met in practice one or two 
similar cases, we deem it worth while to call attention to this source 
of error. 

The Pelvis. —This portion of the trunk is situated at its base, con¬ 
stituting the point of junction of the lower extremities with the trunk. 
It is composed of four bones: the sacrum , a wedge-shaped bone be¬ 
hind; the ossa innominata , two bones upon the sides; and the coccyx 


THE HYOID BONE. 


59 


below. These four bones are so shaped and joined together as to form 
a sort of basin by which are supported the upper soft parts of the body, 
particularly the abdominal organs. The several bones are joined to¬ 
gether so firmly that scarcely any degree of motion is possible, es¬ 
pecially in the adult. In early childhood each of the several bones 
named is made up of several separate portions, which are usually de¬ 
scribed in the anatomies, but which have no special practical interest, 
and so need not be noticed here except in a general way. Upon the 
back side of the sacrum is found an incomplete canal which is a con¬ 
tinuation of the spinal canal and is occupied by the spinal column, 
which spreads out upon the lower portion of the bone in a peculiar 
manner that has given it the name of canda equina, from a fancied 
resemblance to the tail of a horse. Through large openings in the sa¬ 
crum the spinal nerves pass forward to supply important organs within 
the pelvis and the anterior portions of the lower extremities. 

At the outer and inferior part of the os innominatum , at the point 
of j unction of the three original portions of the bone, is found a deep 
socket called the acetabalum from its resemblance to an ancient Roman 
vinegar cup. This deep pocket is for the reception of the head of the 
femur, the bone of the thigh, by which is formed the hip joint. In life 
the socket Is further deepened and strengthened by a rim of cartilage 
which surmounts its edge, as also by a strong band called the capsular 
li of ament which surrounds the socket and the head of the bone, being at- 
tached to each, an arrangement which also exists in most other joints. 

Upon the lower side of the two hip bones are broad prominences 
which support the weight of the body in sitting. 

The female pelvis differs from that of the male in being larger, smoother, 
and less curved. This difference is so marked that it is an important 
means of dlstinguishing between male and female skeletons. 

The form and position of the pelvis are well shown in the view of the 
skeleton given in Plate I. 

The Hyoid Hone. —This little bone, though situated so near the head 
as to be hardly included in the bones of the trunk, is yet of sufficient im¬ 
portance to require mention and description, and may as well be noticed 
here as elsewhere. It is the bone of the tongue, to which it is attached, 
and is not connected with any other bone. It is shaped some like a 
horseshoe, and Is situated about an inch below the chin, between the root 
of the tongue and the upper part of the larynx. It carries the epiglot¬ 
tis, the cartilaginous valve which guards the entrance to the windpipe. 


GO 


ANATOMY, physiology, and hygiene. 


It also forms the center of attachment for the muscles which move the 
tongue and throat. 

BONES OF THE UPPER EXTREMITIES, 

The bones of each superior extremity consist of the scapula, clavicle, 
humerus, ulna, radius, eight wrist or carpal bones, five hand or meta¬ 
carpal bones, and fourteen phalanges or finger bones, making thirty-two 
in all. 

The Scapula. —This is an irregular flat bone of triangular shape, 
situated at the posterior part of the shoulder, forming what is com¬ 
monly known as the shoulder-blade. Crossing the upper part of the 
bone is a sharp prominence known as the spine, which passes forward 
and terminates in a beak-shaped projection which overhangs the shoul¬ 
der joint; beneath this is a shallow depression known as the glenoid 
fossa, which receives the head of the arm bone in the formation of the 
shoulder joint. The scapula is not joined either by articulation or by 
ligaments to any of the other bones of the trunk, as it is designed to al¬ 
low to the shoulder joint the greatest possible freedom of motion, being 
attached to the trunk by strong muscles which hold it in place with 
sufficient firmness to give all needed strength to the joint. 

Tlie Clavicle. —This bone, commonly known as the collar-bone, is 
shaped almost exactly like the italic letter f. It is attached at its inner 
extremity to the breast-bone, and by its outer to the great prominence 
of the scapula. Its object is to brace the shoulders apart and thus add 
to the strength of the upper extremities. The clavicle is found in but 
few quadrupeds, but is largely developed in birds for the same reason 
that it is present in man. This bone is frequently broken, but as the 
parts cannot be very greatly displaced, the fractured ends usually unite 
with little difficulty and only slight deformity. 

The Arm.—The bone of the arm proper is the humerus, which ex¬ 
tends from the shoulder to the elbow, of both of which joints it forms a 
part. It has a straight shaft and rounded extremities which are protected 
by cartilage in the manner common to all bones entering into freely act¬ 
ing j oints. The lower end of the bone presents a notch at its inner side 
through which passes an important nerve which is distributed to the in¬ 
ner side of the hand. It ls this nerve which is hit when a person causes 
tingling sensations in the little linger by striking the elbow against a 
sharp corner. In common parlance this part is called the funny or 
crazy bone, though, as just seen, it is not a bone at all, but a nerve. By 


THE FORE-ABM—THE HAND. 


61 


placing the end of the thumb in this notch and pressing hard it is pos¬ 
sible to produce the peculiar sensation at any time. 

The Fore-Arm. —The fore-arm is composed of two bones, the ulna 
and the radius. The first-mentioned of these is the longer of the two, 
and forms with the humerus the principal part of the elbow joint, ex¬ 
tending from the elbow down to the wrist on the little-finger side of 
the arm. It has but a slight articulation with the wrist. 

The radius has a large articulating surface at the wrist and a very 
small one at the elbow. The two bones are united their whole length by 
a strong ligament. The upper end of the radius rolls in a notch upon 
the side of the ulna, its end resting against the lower end of the humerus. 

The Hand. —The remaining bones of the upper extremity are in¬ 
cluded in the hand, which is divided into three portions : the carpus, 
or wrist; the metacarpus , the portion between the wrist and the fin¬ 
gers ; and the fingers, or phalanges. 

The carpus, or wrist, is composed of eight small bones arranged in 
two rows, possessing smooth articular surfaces, which allows of great 
freedom of motion in a great variety of directions. 

The metacarpus consists of five bones, which join the digits to the 
wrist. Their motion is quite limited. 

The digits consist of four fingers and a thumb. The fingers have 
each three phalanges, but the thumb has only two. Some, however, 
consider that there are but four metacarpal bones, which would allow 
the thumb three phalanges like the other digits. 

The finger joints are so constructed that they are capable of not 
only a hinge-motion, but also a slight degree of rotary motion, which 
gives to the hand great suppleness and diversity of action. 

THE INFERIOR EXTREMITIES, 

The lower extremities comprise thirty bones, which will be de¬ 
scribed in their order. 

The Thigh .—The femur, or thigh bone, is the largest and longest 
of all the bones in the body. It presents at its upper end a remarkable 
prominence called its head, by which it forms, with the acetabulum of 
the os innominatum, the hip joint. Its lower end is greatly expanded 
to form the knee joint, the most extensive articulation in the body. 

The Leg. —The leg, like the fore-arm, is made up of two bones. 
The larger of these, the tibia, is the principal bone of the leg, forming 


62 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


the chief part in the leg portion of both the knee and the ankle joints, its 
companion bone, the fibula, taking but little part in either. The latter 
bone is a long, slim structure, placed beside the tibia upon the outer 
Dart of the lee:. Its lower end forms the outer ankle. The two bones 
are firmly united throughout their whole length by a strong ligament. 

A third small bone is found in the tendon of one of the large muscles 
of the leg which passes over the front portion of the knee; this is 
termed the patella, or knee-cap. It exactly fits upon and protects the 
front side of the knee joint, which would otherwise be exposed to injury. 



Fig 1 . 30. Outline of the bones of the foot, showing at c, the 
Astragalus; b , the Os Calcis , or heel bone; 7t, the Tarsus ; and 
i, the Phalanges of the toes. 


Tlio Foot. —Fig. 30. Like the hand, the foot is divided into three 
parts,—the ankle, instep, or tarsus, the metatarsus, and the digits or toes. 

The tarsus is made up of seven bones corresponding to the eight 
bones of the wrist. One of these, the astragalus, supports the lower end 
of the tibia; another, known as the os calcis, forms the heel and receives 
the attachment of the ten do- Achilles, the strongest tendon in the body. 
All are so firmly bound together that the ankle is strong enough to sustain 
the whole weight of the body, notwithstanding the great number of sep¬ 
arate bones which enter into its formation. 

The metatarsus consists of five bones closely resembling the bones of 
the hand, and answering the same purpose. 

The digits are live in number, each, except the great toe, having 
three phalanges, the latter having but two, as in the case of the thumb. 

The peculiar manner in which the bones of the foot are united is a 
matter worthy of attention. Instead of being joined together on the 
same plane, they are so united as to form an arch from every point of 
view, both laterally and longitudinally. This arrangement greatly adds 
to the strength of the foot, and gives it an elasticity which protects other 
parts of the body from sudden j ars and shocks. 

The general shape and mutual relation of the bones of both extrem- 




BONES OF THE EAR 


63 

ities can be readily seen by reference to the view of the skeleton given 
in Plate 1. 

Sesamoid Bones. —In various parts of the body where tendons 
pass over joints with considerable friction, small bones are often formed 
in the tendons, which from their resemblance to the seeds of the sesamum 
are termed sesamoid bones. The patellae are bones of this class. Other 
sesamoid bones are often found in the feet and hands. 

AY ormian Bones. —Extra bones are sometimes formed in the cra¬ 
nium for the purpose of filling up a deficiency between contiguous bones. 
In some skulls large numbers of these bones may be found, varying in 
size from that of half a pea to the size of a half-dollar. These are called 
wormian bones. 

Bones of the Ear. —Fig. 31. The list of bones is not complete 



Fig-. 31. Bones of the ear. a. Malleus , or mallet; b. Incus , or anvil; c. Stapes , or stirrup. 


without the eight minute ossicles which help to form the apparatus for 
hearing. These we shall not describe in this connection, however, as 
their full description more properly belongs to the special anatomy of 
the ear, which see. 

PHYSIOLOGY OF THE BONES, 

As the particular uses of the different bones of the body have already 
been noticed in connection with their description, we need now concern 
ourselves only in relation to the general functions of the bones and the 
uses of special groups. The functions of bones may be said to be sup¬ 
port, protection, and motion. Each of these functions we will now ex¬ 
amine more particular!}'. 

Snpport. —As a whole, the skeleton forms the framework of the 
entire body. Upon its firmness depends that of the softer parts which 
are built upon it, the muscles, nerves, membranes, and other tissues. 
Without the skeleton, the other tissues would fall limp, into inextricable 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE . 



confusion. Bv means of the skeleton, the head is held erect, and the 
limbs supported in proper position, giving them efficiency and symmetry. 

Protection. —Equall} 7 striking is the dependence of numerous parts 
of the body upon the skeleton for protection from external injury. Of 
this we have many examples. The skull is admirably adapted to the 
protection of the brain, the most delicate of all the vital tissues, be¬ 
ing a bony cell, well arched to secure the greatest possible strength to 
resist external violence, and composed of two walls with a peculiar ar¬ 
rangement of tissue between especially calculated to deaden the effect of 
blows applied to the head by accident or design. 

The head is still further protected 
by the peculiar curves of the spmal 
column, upon which it rests. This will 
be best understood by reference to Fig. 
32, by which it will be seen that blows 
received from below, as in jumping, or 
even in walking upon a hard surface, 
are little felt by the head, since the vari¬ 
ous curves conduct away the lines of 
force and thus prevent much from reach¬ 
ing the head. 

Still another means of protection is 
provided for the delicate brain, as if to 
secure it against the possibility of injury, 
in the fibro-cartilaginous cushions placed 
between the vertebrae. See Fig. 26. 
The elasticity of these discs of cartilage 
causes them to yield to pressure whether 
it be slowly or suddenly applied, and 
thus the brain is protected from the full 
force of concussions which otherwise 

Pi?. 32. Designed to show how the mi g ht seriously injure. Even the slight 

jar of walking is prevented from reach- concussions Constantly occurring when 
ing the brain, by means of the curves of , J 0 

the body. one is walking over an uneven surface 

would, without this provision, undoubt¬ 
edly occasion serious injury to the brain and the delicate organs con¬ 
nected with it. The amount of this kind of action is better appreciated 
by reference to the well-known fact that people who are much upon 
their feet during the day, especially those who are traveling about over 



FOSSIBLE FUNCTION OF THE BONES. 


G5 


uneven surfaces, diminish very appreciably in height between morn¬ 
ing and evening. Most persons vary an inch in height, and instances 
have been noted in which persons have lost more than two inches in 
height through vigorous and prolonged exercise. This is caused by the 
thinning of the cartilage discs from the prolonged pressure to which 
they are subjected. In elderly people the same thinning takes place, 
permanently diminishing their stature. 

The spinal cord is protected by the bony canal formed by the rings 
of the several vertebrae composing the spinal column. The enlargement 
of this canal in the cervical portion, where it is much larger than the 
cord, is a marked instance of nature’s fine adaptation of means to ends. 
The neck is designed to be turned in every direction freely; but this 
freedom of motion would disturb the function of the spinal cord except 
for the arrangement mentioned. 

Another example of protection is seen in the thorax, which is a bony 
cage in which are encased the lungs, heart, great blood-vessels, impor¬ 
tant nerves, and several other important organs. 

The pelvis also protects within its wide-spreading arch several im¬ 
portant vital organs. 

Throughout the body, as a rule, the large blood-vessels and most im¬ 
portant nerve trunks are protected by their position upon the inner and 
under sides of the bones near which they run. 

Motion. —The bones are the passive agents in the production of 
motion. The muscles, being excited to action by the nerves, employ the 
bones as levers. In walking, the body is, by means of the muscles act¬ 
ing on the bones, pried about from place to place. It is a curious fact 
that nearly all of the simple kinds of mechanical appliances are utilized 
in the production of motion; but as this subject will be dwelt upon at 
much greater length in connection with the study of the muscles, we will 
devote no further space to it here. 

Possible Function of the Bones.— It lias been supposed by some 
of the most eminent physiologists that bones having a medullary canal 
may play an important part in the production of white blood corpuscles, 
it being thought that the medullary substance is capable of producing 
these bodies, the origin of which has been a subject of study by physiol¬ 
ogists ever since they were first discovered in the blood. Whether the 
supposition is correct or not cannot be positively asserted at the present 
time, as there have been no conclusive investigations on the subject. 

5 


66 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE . 


Composition of tlie Bones. —Bone substance is a curious com¬ 
pound of living matter, and matter possessing so low a grade of life that 
it is even doubted by some whether or not it possesses life at all. For 
convenience of description, it is customary to speak of the elements of 
bone as being organized and inorganic, the two being supposed to be in¬ 
timately blended together. It is more than probable, as before intimated, 
that this is not a correct statement of the fact, but that bone, like all 
other tissues, is a living, organized structure throughout, but so exceed¬ 
ingly complex in its nature that its elements are easily separated from 
their combination. 

Recollecting the real truth in the matter, we may proceed to examine 
the composition of bone, for convenience considering it as a mechanical 
compound of certain living elements with others that are not possessed of 
life. If a bone is placed in the fire for a short time, when taken out it 
will be found to have changed its nature very remarkably. First, it 
will be noticed that it has lost one-third of its weight; and, second, it 
will be observed that it has lost its strength and toughness. A slight 
force will break it, and it may be easily crumbled to a fine powder; 
yet it retains precisely its original form and general appearance. 

If, instead of placing the bone in the fire, we had immersed it in a so¬ 
lution of muriatic acid for a few days or 
weeks, we should have obtained very differ¬ 
ent results. Supposing that we have done so, 
we find the bone still retaining its original 
form and appearance, but upon weighing it 
we discover that it has lost two-thirds of its 
weight. Its nature has also changed: for in- 
stead of being firm and inflexible, it is now 
so flexible that, if a rib or a fibula, it may be 
tied into a knot. Fig. 33. 

If bones which have been treated in these 
ways be submitted to a careful chemical ex¬ 
amination, it will be found that the bone 
which has been burned has lost all of its an¬ 
imal matter, the residue being a mixture of 
carbonates and phosphates of various bases. 
The bone which was immersed in acid will be 
found, on the other hand, to have lost all its 
mineral matter, the animal or vitalized organ¬ 



Figr. 33. A long bone which 
has been rendered so flexible by- 
soaking in diluted muriatic acid 
that it can be tied into a knot. 


ized portion of the bone remaining. 



















PROPER DEVELOPMENT . 


67 


A careful analysis of the bones conducted in this manner, by the aid 
of the most refined processes known to chemical science, has determined 
the composition of bone to be as shown in the following table:— 

Organic Matter, «{ Gelatine and blood-vessels, . . . . 33.30 

Phosphate of lime, . . . . . 51.04 

Carbonate of lime, . . . . . 11.30 

Fluoride of calcium, . . . . . 2.00 

Phosphate of magnesia, . . . . 1.46 

^ Soda and chloride of sodium, . . . 1.20 

100.00 

In childhood the proportion of animal matter is much greater, so that 
the bones of infants and children are much more flexible than those of 
older people, and much less liable to fracture. In old age, on the con¬ 
trary, the proportion of mineral matter greatly increases, so that the 
bones become exceedingly brittle, and break with very slight violence. 
A child will fall several feet without suffering graver injury than slight 
bruises which will heal in a few hours. An old person, suffering 
half the violence, will not escape without broken limbs. It has often 
happened that an elderly person has broken an arm or a leg by simply 
rolling off the bed during sleep, or even tripping upon a door-sill and fall¬ 
ing upon the floor. 


Inorganic, 

or < 

Earthy matter, 


HYGIENE OF THE BONES, 

Although the bones when once well formed are much less liable to 
disease than most of the softer parts of the body, yet they are un¬ 
doubtedly affected by various morbid influences, and during the period of 
development are especially liable to become diseased in a variety of ways. 
We shall attempt to point out in as brief and concise a manner as possi¬ 
ble some of the principal sources of danger to the integrity of this part 
of the system and the means necessary to secure the healthy develop¬ 
ment of the bones in early life, and their maintenance in a healthy 
condition in adult life. 

Proper Development. —First of all, proper development is essen¬ 
tial to the health of the bones as well as of other tissues of the body. If 
a morbid condition has been received by inheritance, of course the defect 
cannot be remedied; but most frequently faulty development is due to 








G8 


ANATOMY, fHYSIOLOGY , AND HYGIENE. 


faults which can he avoided. The chief causes of faulty development 
may be said to be,— 

1. Improper Food .—By improper food we mean that which is lack¬ 
ing in the elements of nutrition necessary to form healthy bones. This 
is sometimes due to poor health, as defective digestion, on the part of the 
mother, so that the food she furnishes her infant both before and after 
birth is lacking in the proper elements of nutrition not only for the 
bones but for all the tissues. The defect may be in the quality of the 
mother’s food. If she attempts to gain nourishment from fine-flour 
bread, strong tea, and lager beer, with perhaps a long list of harmful ar¬ 
ticles besides, the child will certainly suffer, not only with defective 
bones, but with defective mental development, and will be lacking gen¬ 
erally. 

Not infrequently, perhaps most often, defective nutrition for the 
bones arises from the attempt to rear an infant by hand upon such trash 
as corn-starch, tapioca, fine-flour gruel, and almost any one of a dozen 
varieties of “baby food” which are lauded in the newspapers, but the 
only recommendation of which is that they hasten the little sufferers out 
of misery. No food is so good for the young infant as that furnished it 
by nature. If through illness or incapacity the mother is unable to fur¬ 
nish the proper quality or amount of food, then cow’s or goat’s milk, or 
some other proper substitute, should be provided. Full directions for 
such cases are given under the proper heading. 

Another cause of defective development is deficient or too early ex¬ 
ercise. Children that are kept constantly confined indoors cannot de¬ 
velop strong, healthy bones, any more than they can develop vigorous 
muscles. Exercise is essential to the development of every organ of the 
body, as well as to the maintenance of health in organs originally well 
developed. 

On the other hand, allowing children to begin to exercise too early, 
as attempting to teach them to walk before the bones have acquired suf¬ 
ficient firmness to sustain without injury the weight of the body, may 
dwarf and deform a child so that proper development may be impossible. 

Putting children at work at employments which tax them by requir¬ 
ing continuous application for long periods is a most injurious and inhu¬ 
man practice. When this is done, ossification is hastened, and becomes 
completed before the individual has attained his full growth, thus dwarf¬ 
ing him. The thousands of diminutive young men and women to be 


PROPER DEVELOPMENT. 


69 


found in the vicinity of large manufacturing cities bear testimony to 
the truth of this observation. 

The bones of young children are soft and pliable, and yield when 
subjected to more strain than they can bear, thus becoming distorted. 
The exercise of children should always be varied, and should be given 
with frequent intervals for rest. Prolonged action is much more tax¬ 
ing to children than more violent exercise with frequent periods 
of rest; but both should be avoided. Moderate exertion and plenty of 
rest are the essential principles of development by exercise for children. 

Spinal Curvatures .—Almost a volume might be written on the evil 
results of improper positions assumed in lying, sitting, standing, and 
walking; but our space is limited, and as the subject will be again 
referred to under the head of “ Hygiene of the Muscles ” we shall now 
simply touch upon the most important points which bear particularly 
upon the hygiene of the bones. It is in childhood especially that errors 
of this kind exert most strongly their baneful influence. 

Probably to improper positions in school-rooms, where boys and 
girls as students are usually confined several hours of each of five 
days in the week, is due a large share of the distortions of the spine 
which are so exceedingly common nowadays. . Dress-makers and 
most tailors are well posted on the frequency of spinal curvature, 
on account of the great number of instances in which dresses, coats, 
and other garments have to be cut and padded to hide deformities of 
this sort. Spinal curvatures are much more common among young la¬ 
dies than in the opposite sex, for the reason that young men and boys 
usually engage in such vigorous, active sports out of school-hours that 
the evils occasioned by confinement in improper attitudes are in a con¬ 
siderable degree counteracted. We have for several years made a 
special point of observing with considerable care the persons whom we 
meet in traveling, in the streets, and in various other ways, with ref¬ 
erence to this point; and we have been astonished to see in what a 
large proportion of young persons, particularly young ladies, some de¬ 
gree of variation of the spinal column from the natural form exists. 
We have noticed particularly on more than one occasion the very 
great frequency of this form of deformity in young ladies in attend¬ 
ance at our city schools. In cases in which the curvature is lateral it 
may be discovered at a glance by the difference in prominence of the 
two shoulders. The shoulder upon the concave or hollow side of the 
curve is always lower than that on the opposite side. 


70 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE . 


One great cause of the serious injury to students, and especially 
the younger class of school-children, is the use of improper seats and 
desks, or seats and desks not adapted to the age or size of those who 
occupy them. It may be well to remark, however, that the evil is be¬ 
coming generally recognized by our foremost educators, and the im¬ 
provements already made in this direction by manufacturers give rea¬ 
son to hope that the difficulty will soon be remedied, so far as the me¬ 
chanical construction of seats and desks is concerned. But this alone 
will not remedy the evil; teachers must fully appreciate its gravity and 
must do their part in inducing students to assume and maintain a cor¬ 
rect attitude in sitting at their studies. When engaged in study, stu¬ 
dents, especially if they are near-sighted or if the light is poor or print 
defective, are very apt to lean forward until the spine is very consid¬ 
erably curved. This is especially the case when engaged in ciphering 
or writing. The effect of this is to produce a permanent forward 
curving of the spine, and round shoulders, a deformity the most seri¬ 
ous aspect of which is by no means its detraction from the good ap¬ 
pearance of an individual. At the same time, most generally, a lateral 
curvature is produced by sitting with one arm upon the desk while 
the other is not, the desk being so high as to require the shoulder to 
be elevated to bring the elbow upon it. This position is a very com¬ 
mon one with students, and to it is due the greater share of the cases 
of lateral curvature. 

At first a curvature is only a functional distortion, being due to 
weakening of some of the muscles of the back, but by degrees it be¬ 
comes permanent, as will be seen by a glance at the structure of the 
spinal column. It will be recollected that the vertebral column is 
made up of twenty-four separate bones arranged one above another, 
with discs of elastic cartilage between. It will also be recollected 
that the observation was made that these cartilages may lose their 
elasticity in some degree by continuous pressure, so that they become 
thinned, thus making a person shorter at night than in the morn¬ 
ing, the variation being from one to two inches in different persons, 
and according to the amount of exercise taken. From these facts it 
will be readily seen that if the spinal column be bent and retained in 
a curved position for any considerable time, the discs of cartilage will 
become thinner upon the side upon which the pressure is applied, that 
is upon the hollow side of the curve, than upon the opposite side. 
Again, it will be readily understood that if this occurs daily for a con- 


PROPER DEVELOPMENT. 


71 





siderable period, the thinning 
upon the side brought under 
pressure may become perma¬ 
nent. This is exactly what 
does occur. The cartilages, 
which are naturally of equal 
thickness on the two sides, 
become so changed that they 
resemble wedges. This is well 
seen in the illustrations. See 
Figs. 34, 35. 

We have in our possession a 
section of the spinal column 
which we removed from the 
body of an individual in whom 
it had become so curved as to 
almost exactly resemble the let¬ 
ter S. In this case the carti¬ 
lages were in exactly the condi¬ 
tion represented in the accom¬ 
panying cut above referred to. 
We have recently had under 
treatment a number of cases of 
this sort in young ladies, whose 
bad positions assumed in sitting 
at school were wholly respon¬ 
sible for the deformity of which 
they suffered. In one instance 
in which there was double curv¬ 
ature of spine, as represented in 
Fig. 37, the young lady’s height 
was increased by treatment two 
inches in a few weeks, by sim¬ 
ply straightening the spine and 
restoring the cartilage discs to 
their proper uniform thickness. 
In another case an inch and a 
half was gained in the same 
way, though in the latter in¬ 
stance there was posterior as 


Fig. 34. Section of vertebrae, showing, at 3, 
Fibro-Cartilage Disc of normal shape. 


Fig. 35. Diagram showing the Cartilage, 3, 
thickened as the result of an anterior curvature 
of the spine, the spines of the vertebrae, ss, be¬ 
ing brought near together. 


Fig 1 . 33. Diagram showing the Cartilage, 3, 
thinned by pressure resulting from a posterior 
curvature, the ends of the spines, ss, being sep¬ 
arated more than usual. 









72 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

well as double lateral curvature. The mode of treatment employed is 
detailed elsewhere. 

It is too evident to need special explanation that if 
the permanent thinning of the intervertebral cartilages 
has existed a very long time no method of treatment will 
be of avail. Hence the importance, not only of taking 
every precaution to prevent the evil in the first place, but 
of adopting the necessary curative measure as soon as the 
deformity is discovered. 

Deformity from Tiglit-Lacing. —While the bones 
suffer the least of any organs from the absurd custom 
which fashion has imposed upon the gentler sex,—and, we 
are informed, at times upon the other sex as well,—tight- 
lacing the waist and encasing the body in a vise of stays 
of bone or steel, is of positive and often incurable injury 
to this part of the vital economy, and is indirectly the 
source of far greater damage to more vital parts. 

The reader will recall that in considering the anatomy of the thorax 
attention was called to the fact that the bony ribs do not join the ster¬ 
num or breast-bone directly, but indirectly through the medium of flex¬ 
ible cartilages, an arrangement which gives to the thorax the power to 
expand and thus enable the lungs the better to perform their important 
functions. Careful study has shown that this flexibility of the costal 
cartilages is due to their constant exercise. Hay and night, sleeping or 
waking, twenty times a minute, these flexible parts are bent and allowed 
to return again to their natural position. This constant bending and un¬ 
bending allows them no opportunity to become stiff and unyielding like 
the bones. But when the chest is imprisoned in a corset, this constant 
movement becomes impossible ; and the consequence is that a process of 
stiffening is set up, and after a time the once flexible, yielding cartilages 
become as rigid as the rest of the ribs. The inevitable result of this 
change is a permanent limitation of the movements of the lungs. It be¬ 
comes impossible for them to expand except to a limited degree upward 
and downward. Lateral expansion is as impossible when the corset is 
laid aside as when it is in place. The deformity, which was at first tem¬ 
porary, has become permanent. There are thousands of delicate ladies 
all over the land whose costal cartilages have been thus chaimed through 
their own willful abuse of their bodies, and who will undoubtedly go 
down into premature graves in consequence, in spite of all that the most 
skillful physicians can do for them. 



Figr. 37. 

Double curvature 
of the spine. 




ABUSE OF THE FEET. 


h -*0 

/ o 

The chest ought to be capable of expansion from two to five inches, 
—even greater expansion is attainable. But if you put a tape-line 
around one of these corset-stiffened chests you will be unable to ob¬ 
tain more than a scant quarter-inch of difference in measurement 
between the chest when empty anel when filled to its utmost capacity. 
We have often tried the experiment when making physical exami¬ 
nations of the chest, and though the patient is almost always anxious 
to do her best, in order to demonstrate if possible what every lady 
will eagerly contend for, that her corset never did her any harm because 
it was worn so loose, and so draws up her shoulders to her utmost and 
makes a desperate attempt to swallow more ah* than there is room for, 
we have often found that the expansion of the sides of the chest was so 
slight as to be imperceptible. If tight-lacing did no other harm than 
this, we should certainly wish to condemn it in the strongest terms we 
could find language to express; and we cannot help feeling sometimes 
that it is a great misappropriation of money to support an army of mis¬ 
sionaries among the inappreciative and degenerated inhabitants of Af¬ 
rican jungles and other heathen countries, who value human life so 
little that they feed their superfluous little ones to the crocodiles, and 
sacrifice a score of women to commemorate the death of a king, while 
there are so many thousands, perhaps millions, in civilized lands who are 
sacrificing lives which might be a hundred-fold more useful, in ways 
equally absurd and senseless. Let us have health missionaries to go into 
every city, village, and community, and preach the life-saving gospel of 
health. Such a mission is needed ; and it ought to be instituted and 
supported, even if at the expense of some of our numerous and worthy, 
though far less important, missions to the degraded and benighted of 
foreign lands. 

Abuse of the Feet. —Though we have not space here to elucidate 
fully the subject of the hygiene of the feet, we cannot forbear calling 
attention to the very common evil practices which relate to them. 
Nothing could be more absurd than the modern mode of dressing the 
feet. If some of the shoes and boots which we have seen worn, and 
which seemed to be highly prized by the wearers as being in the height 
of fashion, had been constructed by the Inquisition, and the same individ¬ 
uals had been compelled to wear them in punishment for some real or 
alleged crime, they would have been regarded as diabolical instruments 
of torture; and so they are. Who has not seen a young miss mincing 
along in a wholly unnatural way, vainly striving not to seem to limp, 


74 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY , JAD HYGIENE . 


in the sinful attempt to compel her feet to be reconciled to the scanty 
capacity of a pair of shoes two sizes too small for her. Within a short 
period, Fashion has let go her iron grasp upon the young men; but she 
still holds as firm a grip as ever upon the tender feet of misses and 
maidens as well as their elder sisters and mothers, and compels them 
to place upon their feet pretenses of coverings which cannot but pro¬ 
duce discomfort and disease. The narrow soles, and high, narrow heels 
set forward near the middle of the foot, are qualities most worthy of 
being heartily despised; and the man or woman who invented the foot- 
. covering possessing these properties, so finely adapted to torture the 
feminine foot, is responsible for an amount of discomfort and misery, 
individual and domestic unhappiness, and possibly of actual vice, which 
certainly entitles him to the dishonor of being heartily despised and 
abundantly reproached by the whole human kind. 

A year or two ago we thought Fashion had concluded to be sensible 
at last, at least in the matter of foot-coverings, but alas for our hopes! 
Another turn of the wheel and she comes up as fickle and untrue to the 
requirements of Nature as ever, and demands that woman shall wear 
French heels, or be ostracized from the society of the tflite, which to the 
majority of fashionable women would be a fate as bad or worse than 
death. We declare without mental reservation and without the slight¬ 
est remorse of conscience, as a professional man and as a professed 
champion of truth, that a French slipper or shoe, as made at present 
(in the year 1880), is as unfit for a human foot as a horseshoe. Far 
more sensible would it be to return to the ancient custom and wear 
the rude, homely sandals which graced the feet of the maidens of an¬ 
cient Egypt and the Orient. 

But let us look a moment at the real evils of these fashionable cover¬ 
ings for the feet, at least for ladies’ feet. The custom of wearing tight 
shoes with narrow soles and high, narrow heels, begins in early maiden¬ 
hood, if not in childhood or infancy,—and sometimes the absurd fashion 
even seizes upon the child as soon as she leaves the cradle, for the preco¬ 
cious little one is so smart she must be a lady at once, and so must do as 
ladies do. At this period the bones are so soft and flexible, the ligaments 
so yielding, that they are easily forced into almost any mold, and the 
process of deforming them begins. The small boot or gaiter worn,—and 
it is always as small as can possibly be pressed upon the foot with the 
thinnest possible stocking,—allows no room for development of the organ, 
and the improper shape produces deformity and distortion. The fash- 


ABUSE OF THE FEET. 


id 

ionable American girl does in a somewhat more limited degree exactly 
what is done for the Chinese maiden by a process of bandaging, of which 
we will elsewhere give our readers a description. The narrow soles and 
smalL toes cramp the foot and prevent it from supporting the weight of 
the body upon its whole under surface as designed by nature. The high 
heel throws the weight forward upon the toes, which still further em¬ 
barrasses them in their cramped condition, and greatly increases the in¬ 
jury arising from narrow toes and soles. We have often witnessed some 
of these unfortunate young women tiptoeing along the streets, evidently 
conscious of appearing awkward and uncouth, and vainly endeavoring 
to conceal their crippling gait. The farther toward the toes the heel is 
set, the worse this difficulty becomes. In some of the latest foreign styles 
the wearer is barely able to touch her toe to the ground, except at the 
risk of tipping over forward, and when walking appears like a person 
stumping along on stilts. We heartily believe in laws against stealing, 
defrauding, taking life, disturbing the peace, even for the prohibition of 
the sale of liquor, and we can conceive of no reason why a shoemaker 
who deliberately goes to work and manufactures an instrument of tor¬ 
ture which he perfectly well knows must spoil the happiness, ruin the 
temper, and make cripples of half the women of Christendom, should not 
be placed under the ban of the law and visited with punishment commen¬ 
surate to his crimes. 

But perhaps we are beginning at the wrong end. It cannot be de¬ 
nied that ladies can obtain if they wish loosely fitting shoes, with broad 
soles, wide toes, and low and wide heels, and made of leather sufficiently 
thick to afford at least as much protection as a good quality of brown 
paper from the dampness and chilliness of the moist walks which must 
be encountered during the greater part of the year out of doors. If la¬ 
dies will do then* duty by themselves and their daughters, the evil may 
be speedily corrected; for French heels will not be made only so long as 
there is a demand for them. We are not sure, after all, but they owe 
their existence far more to female vanity than to any malignant designs 
on the part of the shoemakers. 


7G 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, ANl) HYGIENE . 


THE MUSCLES. 


The muscles constitute the flesh, or lean meat, of animals. Their gen¬ 
eral structure may be readily seen in the boiled leg of a fowl. By a 
little care the round mass of flesh forming the thigh may be separated 
into coarse fibres, which by careful manipulation can be still further di¬ 
vided into tiny threads. Under the microscope the finest fibres which 
can be seen by the naked eye are found to be composed of still smaller 
fibres, which are the anatomical elements of muscular tissue, and have 
already been studied. In a muscle these minute fibres are bound up in 
little bundles, which are again united into larger bundles, and these are 
bound up together in a common sheath to form the complete muscle. 

Two Kinds of Muscles. —As already pointed out, there are two 
varieties of muscles, which are distinguished both bv their structure and 
by their mode of action. They are known as voluntary and involun¬ 
tary muscles. The voluntary muscles are chiefly located upon the ex¬ 
terior of the body, giving roundness and symmetry to the form. They 
are employed in all voluntary motions. The involuntary muscles are 
chiefly found in the interior of the body, in membranes, the walls of cav¬ 
ities, of blood-vessels, and of the various outlets of the body. Involun¬ 
tary fibres also abound in the skin, being attached near the roots of the 
hairs. It is by their contraction that the skin is made to assume the ap¬ 
pearance of goose-flesh. 

The Tendons. —In order to give the muscles strength and greater 
efficiency they are not usually attached directly to the bones with which 
they are connected, and in conjunction with which they give rise to the 
various movements of which the body is capable, but are united to them 
by means of tendons, which are white, glistening bodies composed of 
tough, inelastic, fibrous tissue similar to that which forms ligaments. 
Tendons are sometimes very short, but at other times are drawn out 
into long, thin cords, traveling some distance from the muscle before 
being attached to the bone. 

Form and Arrangement of Muscles.— The voluntary muscles 
are of various forms, as will be seen by reference to the accompanying 
cuts, Figs. 37, 38, 39, and 40. By this diversity of form they are adapted 
to all the different positions in which they are required to act. 



MUSCLES OF THE HEAD. 


77 



Fig. 37. 



Fig-. 38. 



Fig. 39. 



Fig. 40. 


Fig. 37. Fusiform, or Spindle-Shaped Muscle, having a tendon at each end. 
Fig. 38. Pennate, or Feather-Shaped Muscle. 

Fig. 39. Fan-Shaped Muscle. 

Fig. 40. Circular, or Orbicular Muscle. 


The voluntary muscles, with few exceptions, exist in pairs, the two 
halves of the body being symmetrical. 

NAMES AND ACTION OF SPECIAL MUSCLES, 

Of the more than five hundred distinct muscles in the body we can 
mention but a very few of the most important. Indeed, the action of a 
large number of the smaller muscles is so obscured by others that it is 
hardly worth our while to attempt to study them closely. For the sake 
of convenience and brevity we will notice the action of each of the 
muscles named in immediate comiection with its description, although 
this part more properly belongs to the physiology of the muscular 
system. See Plate II, and Fig. 41, for a general view of the muscles. 

Muscles of the Head. —See Figs. 42 and 43. The muscles of the 
head, including those of the face, are among the most interesting of all 
in the body. Of the large number of special muscles in this region 
only a few can be here mentioned by name. 

The Ocdpito-Frontalis .—This muscle is attached to the skull at the 
back part of the head, and by means of a long, thin, flat tendon is carried 
over the top of the head to the forehead, the other end being attached to 
the skin of the latter region. The scalp is closely adherent to the tendon 
of the muscle. By contraction of this muscle the forehead is wrinkled 
and the eyebrows elevated. In some persons the muscle is under such 
complete control that the whole scalp can be moved very freely. 













































78 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


The Corrugator Supercilii. —This might be called the frowning 
muscle. It is located near the inner and upper border of the eye. By 
its contraction the skin of the forehead is drawn down and wrinkled, as 
in scowling. 

Orbicularis Palpebrarum. —The little mus¬ 
cle which bears this long name is the circular 
muscle of the eye. Its fibres surround and aid 
in forming the eyelids, and by their contraction 
the eye is closed. There are several other mus¬ 
cles connected with the external parts of the eye, 
which we have not space to mention. 

Auricular Muscles. —There are three little 
muscles connected with each ear, located just 
beneath the skin, which seem to be designed 
to move the external ear in various directions ; 
but practically they are of no use in man. In 
lower animals these tiny muscles are developed 
into large and useful ones, as in the horse, dog, 
and rabbit. There may occasionally be found a 
person in whom these muscles are so well devel¬ 
oped that the ear may be moved at will, though 
so slightly that no advantage can be derived 
from the action. Darwinian philosophers tell 
us that these rudimentary muscles are vestiges 
of the large, strong muscles possessed by man’s 
primeval ancestors, who may have been able to 
use their ears as fly-brushes for the protection 
of the face. 

Muscles of the Nose. —The soft parts of the 
nose are made up of muscles which compress its 
lower portion, elevate and depress and dilate the nostrils, each receiving 
a name descriptive of its particular function. One of the little muscles 
which operate upon the nose carries the most formidable name of anv 
muscle in the body, being designated as the levator labii superioris 
alccque nasi, which translated means the elevator of the upper lip and 
of the nostril. 

Muscles of the Mouth. —Nine pairs of muscles operate upon the 
mouth and lips, their stationary ends being attached to the bones of the 



Fig 1 . 41. General View 
of the Muscles. 



MUSCLES OF THE HEAD. 


79 


face adjacent to the mouth, and their moving ends being connected 
by a circular muscle which surrounds the mouth, known as the 
orbicularis oris. The use of the last-named muscle is to aid in 
closing the mouth and to pucker the lips as in whistling. 

Muscles of Expression .— 

Most of the muscles connected 
with the mouth and lips are 
chiefly useful in giving ex¬ 
pression to the countenance. 

Through the action of these 
muscles, together with those of 
the external parts of the eye 
and nose, the face becomes a 
mirror of the mind. For in¬ 
stance, when feelings of joy or 
merriment are experienced the 
muscles of the upper part of 
the face contract in such a way 
as to drasf the corners of the 
mouth outward and slightly 
upward, as in laughing or smil¬ 
ing. When opposite emotions 
are experienced, as in grief or 
sullenness, the comers of the 
mouth are drawn down, the 
muscles of the lower part of 
the face being contracted in 
such a way as to draw the lines 
of expression downward. All 
other emotions of the mind are 
indicated with equal distinctness, so that a person of any degree of ex¬ 
perience in observing men and things can tell with almost absolute cer¬ 
tainty the general tenor of the thoughts of one to whom he is speak¬ 
ing. So close is the relation between the mind and the muscles of ex¬ 
pression that it is absolutely impossible for a person to be strongly af¬ 
fected by any emotion without in some degree exhibiting the same in 
the face. For example, it is not possible for a person to be merry in 
mind and at the same time assume an appearance of grief upon the 
face which could not readily be detected as an attempt at deception. 



Fig-. 42. 2 and 5. Occipitofrontalis; 3, 4, and 
6. Muscles of the Ear; 7. Orbicularis Palpebrarum; 
8. Levator Labii Superioris Alaeque Nasi; 9. Com¬ 
pressor Naris; 10. Levator Anguli Oris; 11. Buccin¬ 
ator; 12. Zygomaticus Minor; 13. Orbicularis Oris 
and Zygomaticus Major; 14. Platysma Myoides; 15. 
Splenius; 16. Masseter; 17. Sterno-cleido-mastoid; 
18. Levator Scapulae; 19. Scalenus Medius; 20. Tra¬ 
pezius. 



80 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 



Fig:. 43. This cut shows with 
greater distinctness some of the deep¬ 
er Muscles of the Face, and those of 
its lower part. 


Muscles of Mastication. —Besides the 
muscles of the face already mentioned, 
there is a set of muscles located at the back 
part of the cheek which are attached at 
one end to the skull and upper bones of 
the face, and at the other to the inferior 
jaw-bone. These are quite strong mus¬ 
cles, and their function is to move the lower 
jaw in talking, and particularly in masti¬ 
cation. The principal muscles for this 
purpose are the temporal and the masseter. 

Internal Muscles of the Eye. —The 
system of muscles by which the eye is 
moved is one of the most marvelous exhi¬ 
bitions of mechanism in the body. The 
motions of the eyeball are produced by 
six slender muscles which chiefly arise from 
the bottom of the socket behind the eye, and are attached to its outer 
covering. Four of these produce the movements of the eye upward, 
downward, to the right, and to the left. The other two are ingeniously 
arranged in such a manner as to roll the eye and to move it in an oblique 

direction, hence they are known, 
as the oblique muscles of the eye. 
One of these, the superior oblique, 
operates by means of a pulley ar¬ 
rangement, its tendon passing 
through a loop and changing its 
direction before being inserted into 
the eyeball. By the combined 
action of these several muscles, all 
the different motions are obtained. 
All acting in rapid succession cause the eye to roll in its socket in such 
a way as to enable the sight to describe a complete circle. In persons 
who are cross-eyed or wall-eyed, some of the muscles just described are 
affected. For illustration of muscles of the eye, see Fig. 44. 

Internal Ear Muscles. —Within the ulterior of the ear there are to 
be found three little muscles, the most delicate in the whole bodv, which 
operate upon the minute ear bones and other parts of the middle ear in 
regulating the function of hearing. 



Fig 1 . 44. Showing the Muscles of the Eye. 





MUSCLES OF THE TRUNK. 


81 


Muscles of the Neck. —The muscles of the neck may be rudely di¬ 
vided into two sets; those in front, and those of the back part of the neck. 
The anterior muscles are useful in depressing the lower jaw, in raising 
the bone of the throat, in compressing the throat and controlling the or¬ 
gans used in speaking and swallowing, and to bend the head forward. 

The muscles of the back part of the neck are chiefly useful for mov¬ 
ing the head. By their action the head may be thrown backward or to 
one side. They are quite strong muscles, and a re needed to enable a per¬ 
son to maintain the head 
in an erect position. A 
lono- slim muscle which 

O 7 

passes from the back 
part of the head to the 
upper end of the breast¬ 
bone, called the sterno- 
cleido-mastoid muscle, 
by contraction becomes 
the cause of wry neck, 
for which disease it is 
sometimes necessary to 
divide it by a surgical 
operation. 

Muscles of the 

Trunk.—These also 
may be divided into 
two groups, those found 
upon the front of the 
trunk, and those upon 
the back. The muscles 
of the front form the 
principal portion of the 
abdominal walls. They are attached to the borders of the ribs and the 
breast-bone above, and to the edges of the pelvis below. They bend the 
body forward, and assist in keeping it erect. They are also exceedingly 
useful in respiration, and aid in several other vital operations. Between 
each two ribs there is a double set of muscles which assist in the contrac¬ 
tion and expansion of the thorax in respiration. The upper part of the 
chest also affords attachment to several large muscles which act upon the 
upper extremities. The muscles of the back are exceedingly numerous, 

6 



Fig". 45. Showing Muscles of the Trunk 














82 


ANATOMY . PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


being arranged in five distinct layers. They arise for the most part 
from the projecting points of bone which have been already described as 
being found in great numbers on the vertebrae which make up the 
spinal column. Some also arise from the skull, from the ribs, and from 
the pelvis. They hold the body erect, give to the trunk a great variety 
of movements, draw the head backward, assist in moving the arm, and 
aid in respiration. This is undoubtedly the most complicated part of the 
muscular system. For a view of the muscles of the trunk, see Fig. 45. 

Muscles within the Trunk. —Of the muscles within the trunk of 
the body the most important is the diaphragm , which is a broad, circu¬ 
lar muscle dividing the cavity of the thorax from that of the abdomen. 
Its outer border is attached throughout its whole circumference to the 
lower parts of the ribs and their cartilages and the upper lumbar verte¬ 
brae. The muscular fibres converge from the circumference and unite 
in the center in a large, flat, tendonous portion which forms the center of 
the diaphragm. In a state of rest, the muscle rises into the cavity of the 
thorax like a dome. By its contraction it becomes depressed to a more 
nearly horizontal position, thus aiding inspiration by increasing the size 
of the thoracic cavity. The diaphragm is one of the most important 
muscles of the body. Though voluntary in its structure and under con¬ 
trol of the will, like the other ordinary muscles of respiration it acts in¬ 
voluntarily, and thus carries on the process of respiration during sleep. 

The other muscles found within the trunk are connected with the 
lower extremities, arising upon the inner sides of the pelvis and passing 
out to be attached to the upper part of the thigh bones. They are use¬ 
ful for turning the limb so as to bring the toes outward, to aid in hold¬ 
ing the body erect and in bending it. 

Muscles of the Upper Extremities. —These comprise the muscles 
of the shoulder, arm, fore-arm, and hand. Most of the muscles of the 
shoulder assist the movements of the arm, and so do not require special 
notice. The arm proper is acted upon by eleven muscles, eight of which 
are attached to the scapula. The remaining three arise from the trunk 
of the body and the fore-arm. The most important of these are the 
deltoid , which covers the shoulder and raises the arm to a horizontal po¬ 
sition; the pectoraZis major , which brings the arm forward upon the 
chest—this is the muscle chiefly used by birds in flying, being in them 
enormously developed; the lattissimus dorsi , a large muscle which 
arises from the trunk and is connected with the upper and back part of 
the arm, w 7 hich it draws backward and to the side. 


MUSCLES OF THE HAND. 


83 


The movements of the fore-arm are freer than those of any other 
part of the body unless it be the hand. Its principal motions are 
flexion, bending upon the arm; extension, restoration to its straight 
condition after flexion; rotation inward, turning of the palm of the 
hand toward the body; rotation outward, movement in the opposite 
direction. These movements are accomplished by thirteen different 
muscles, most of which arise from the scapula and arm, and are at¬ 
tached to different parts of the bones of the fore-arm. The most im¬ 
portant of these are, the biceps, which is the principal muscle employed 
in flexion of the fore-arm ; the triceps, which extends the fore-arm, an¬ 
tagonizing the biceps; the pronator teres and pronator quadratics , 
which turn the arm inward; and the supinator brevis, which rotates 
it outward. 

Muscles of the Wrist. —The wrist is moved by sixteen different 
muscles, its chief movements being forward, backward, outward, and 
inward, movements in other directions being made by combinations 
of muscles operating in these different ways. The principal muscles 
of the wrist proper are, one which flexes it upon the ulna, another 
which flexes it upon the radius, and two muscles, a long one and a 
short one, which extend the wrist, antagonizing the flexors. 

Muscles of the Thumb and Fingers. —The thumb and fingers of 
each hand are operated by eighteen different muscles, half of which 
are capable of producing several different motions. It is this fact 
which gives to the human hand the wonderful dexterity which en¬ 
ables man to cany into execution the most subtle mechanical contriv¬ 
ances suggested by his active brain. It is claimed by some, and has 
not been contradicted that we are aware of, that the human hand has 
done almost as much to bring man to his present highly educated and 
civilized state as the brain itself, granting, of course, that the brain is 
the motive power. In no other known animal is there so great an in¬ 
dependence of action in the digits as in man. The power (f opposing 
the thumb to the four other digits is what gives the hand its greatest 
efficiency, enabling it to grasp very small objects between the ends of 
the fingers and the thumbs. The study of digits in different animals 
is an exceedingly interesting branch of knowledge. 

Muscles of tlie Lower Extremities. —The muscles of the inferior 
extremities are in a great degree analogous to those of the arms, cor¬ 
responding quite closely in number, relation, and function. 

Muscles of the Thigh. —These are chiefly large, strong muscles, aris- 


84 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


ing from the pelvis. The thigh is moved by twenty distinct muscles, 
the principal of which are the three glutei muscles which form the 
fleshy part of the hip, and the three adductor muscles which draw the 
limb forcibly toward the central line of the body. 

The Muscles of the Leg. —The leg is moved by ten muscles, the 
chief of which are, the biceps, by which it is flexed upon the thigh; 
the rectus femoris, by which the leg is extended or straightened—it 
is the lower end of this muscle which is inserted into the knee-cap 
or patella, which is in turn attached 1 »y a ligament to the upper part 
of the leg bone, or tibia; and the sartorius, or tailor’s muscle, which is 
used in crossing the legs beneath the body when sitting down in tailor 
fashion. 

Muscles of the Foot. —The ankle and toes are moved by twenty 
separate muscles, of which we will only mention the gastrocnemius 
and soleus which form the chief part of the calf of the leg. There is 
much less freedom of motion in the digits of the feet than in those of 
the hand, although the number and relations of their muscles are much 
the same. A considerable de<wee of control over the toes can be ob- 

O 

tained, however, by practice, as is shown in the case of persons who, 
being deprived of hands, have learned to write legibly with their toes. 

PHYSIOLOGY OF THE MUSCLES, 

The sole property of a muscular fibre is contractility. Muscular 
fibres are said to possess a natural irritability by means of which they 
respond to proper kinds of stimulation by contracting. The ordinary 
and most natural stimulus to muscular contraction is nerve force. 
Through the connection of the nerves with the muscles, nerve force 
generated in the living batteries of the system—the nerve cells of the 
brain and spinal cord—is communicated to the muscle fibres, which are 
by this means made to contract. Muscular fibres may also be made 
to contract by the stimulus of electricity, which in many respects very 
closely resembles the nerve force. Mechanical and chemical irritation, 
such as striking, tearing, or pinching the muscle, or applying an acid 
or some other irritant, has a similar effect. 

It was formerly supposed that muscles could be made to contract 
only through the medium of nerves. It is now known, however, that 
this view is incorrect, since by direct irritation muscular contraction 
can be produced when the nerves are completely paralyzed. 


IIOW A MUSCLE CONTRACTS. 


85 


The contractile power of muscular fibres is not only always pres¬ 
ent while they retain their life, hut is always active. Contrary to the 
general supposition, the muscles are never quiet. They are always 
actively at work, and it is by means of this constant contraction that 
the symmetry of the body is preserved. A proof of this is found in 
the fact that when a single set of muscles is paralyzed, the part be¬ 
comes distorted by the contraction of the antagonizing muscles. This 
is often seen in the face in cases of paralysis of one side. A short 
time ago we had under treatment a patient in whom the extensor 
muscles of both fore-arms had been paralyzed, so that there was loss 
of power to straighten the hands. The fingers were all bent toward 
the palm. The patient could lift quite a heavy weight, but could not 
open the hand, and could scarcely move a finger except to close it 
tighter. By the application of proper treatment to the paralyzed 
muscles upon the outer side of the arm the patient recovered the power 
to control the hand and straighten the fingers. This peculiar property 
is called muscular tonicity. 

How a Muscle Contracts. —The contraction of a muscle, though 
very simple, is still interesting. If the arm be clasped with the hand, 
and the fore-arm be then bent, the hand being closed and a consider¬ 
able degree of force exerted, as in lifting a heavy weight, it will be 
observed that the arm becomes larger, seeming to swell out beneath 
the grasp. If a single muscular fibre were under examination be¬ 
neath a good microscope, as a live fibre just taken from a frog or a 
turtle, we might cause it to contract by a very feeble current of elec¬ 
tricity ; and should we do so, we should notice essentially the same 
thinof; we should find that the fibre would become thicker, but at the 
same time it would become shorter. As already explained, a muscle 
is made up of a large number of fibres; and its contraction as a 
whole is due to the contraction of each one of the minute fibres 
which compose it. As each one of these thickens and shortens in 
the process, the whole muscle thickens and shortens. There is no 
increase in size in the muscle, but simply a change of form. This 
is the simple manner in which all motion is produced. 

Mechanical Action of Muscles. —As elsewhere remarked, the 
muscles use the bones as levers in executing their various movements. 
Not only the lever but also the pulley, another mechanical power, is 
illustrated in the action of the muscles. It will be both interesting 
and profitable to notice some of these exhibitions of vital mechanics. 


86 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 



Fig-, 46. 


A lever consists essentially of a rigid bar of some sort, a point of 
rest for the bar, which may be at one end or at any point between the 

ends called the fulcrum, the pow¬ 
er, which is applied to some part 
of the lever away from the ful¬ 
crum, and the weight, the object 
to be lifted. There are described 
three kinds of levers, which are 
illustrated in Figs. 46, 47, 48. In 
the first kind, it will be noticed 
that the weight is upon one side of the rest, or fulcrum, and the power 
on the other side. In the second kind of lever, shown in Fig. 47, the 
weight is between the power and the fulcrum. In both instances 
there is a gain of power, because the force is applied at the long arm 
of the lever. In the third class, Fig. 48, the power is between the 
weight and the fulcrum. Now the power is applied at a disadvan¬ 
tage, as the weight is at the long arm of the lever. However, there 
is compensation; for what is lost in 
power is gained in speed or motion. 

Now, regarding the muscles as the 
power, the bones as the levers, the 
work to be done, that is, the objects 
to be lifted, carried, pushed, or oth¬ 
erwise moved by the muscles, as the 
weight, let us see how these different forms of levers are illustrated 
in the human body. 

The first kind of lever Is rarely illustrated in the body. It is 
found, however, as in the action of the muscles of the back of the 
neck upon the head. The top of the spinal column is the fulcrum, 
the head itself the lever, the muscles of the neck the power, and the 
front part of the head the weight to be lifted. 

Illustrations of the other two 
kinds of levers are very abundant. 
In the foot, employed in the ordi¬ 
nary act of walking, we have a good 
illustration of a lever of the second 
class. When the body is supported 
on tiptoe, the foot is the lever, the 
earth the fulcrum, the body the weight, and the muscles of the calf 
the power. See Fig. 40. 





USES OF MUSCLES. 


87 




Fig. 50 illustrates by the arm a lever of the third class. Here the 
fore-arm is the lever, the elbow is the fulcrum, the muscles of the 
fore-arm the power, and the dumb-bell lifted in the hand the weight. 
The power, being applied between the fulcrum and the weights, lifts 
the ball at a disadvantage, as it evidently re¬ 
quires more strength to hold the ball in posi¬ 
tion as shown in the figure than it would to lift 
, it straight up with the arm by the side. 

It is not a mistake of nature that the muscles 
and bones of the arm are so arranged that the 
power is applied at a mechanical disadvantage, 
since what is lost in lifting power is gained in 
rapidity and extent of motion. By means of 
this arrangement the dexterity of the hands is 
very greatly increased, and they are far better +1 F 5 8 \ 49 ’ Inthe * bove cut 

J c> J > J the foot, c, represents a lever 

fitted for the great variety of rapid movements with the fulcrum at f, the 
..... . , , ,, ,. weight of the body lifted 

which they are required to execute than they through the bones of the leg, 

could otherwise be. joining the foot at W and 

the power applied at r, the 

The pulley principle is beautifully and per- heel, through the contraction 
» ,i . t . » ,-i i e of the muscles of the calf, a. 

fectly illustrated m one of the muscles of the 

eye, as before mentioned, and also in a muscle of the neck called the 
di-gastric, from the fact that it has two bellies, or fleshy portions. As 
will be seen in the cut (Fig. 51), the middle and tendonous portion 

of the muscle is held by a loop 
through which it plays, the loop con¬ 
stituting a real pulley. Marvelous 
indeed are the works of the Creator, 
and “ fearfully and wonderfully 
made ” is his creature, man. 

Uses of Muscles. —Incidentally 
the muscles add symmetry to the 
body. They fill up the hollows and 
cover up the rough excrescences of 
the bones, and in numerous ways 
add to the beauty and roundness 
of the form. But the really im¬ 
portant function of the muscles is 
to produce motion. In this work the muscles are constantly en¬ 
gaged. Whether we sleep or wake, still the delicate muscular fibres 


Fig:. 50. The arm, representing a lever 
of the third class. 






88 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


of the body are employed in unceasing activity, performing their 
part in the various vital processes necessary to life. Locomotion, man¬ 
ual motion, and vocalization, or speaking, are among the most im¬ 
portant voluntary movements produced by muscular action; while 

respiration, digestion, and the circulation of the 
blood are equally or even more important proc¬ 
esses, largely dependent upon both voluntary 
and involuntary muscular action. 

It may be well for us to devote a brief space 
to the consideration of how these several proc¬ 
esses are performed. 

Locomotion. —The act of walking, or pro¬ 
gression from one point to another by means 
of muscular action, has been much studied by physiologists in both 
man and lower animals. Perhaps the simplest explanation of the act 
of walking would be that it is a continuous falling forward, the body 
being constantly saved from actually falling to the ground by the al¬ 
ternate placing forward of the feet to recover the equilibrium. The 
description of the several acts of walking, running, and leaping, are 
so admirably given by Prof. Dalton, one of the most lucid writers of 
the day on physiology, that we shall take the liberty to quote the fol¬ 
lowing paragraphs from his pen :— 

“ The movements of walking, running, leaping, etc., are performed 
as follows: When the body stands upright, the feet are planted flat 
upon the ground, bearing at once upon the heels behind and the ball 
of the toes in front, the weight of the body resting between the two, 
upon the middle of the arch of the foot. The body is maintained in 
this position, as we have seen, by the various muscles, which act in 
such a way as to keep its different parts carefully balanced, and to 
retain the weight of the whole suspended exactly over the ankle-joint. 

“Now in walking, when a movement is to be executed in advance, 
the body is first made to lean a little forward, so that its weight no 
longer remains above the ankle, but is thrown forward so as to rest 
entirely upon the toes. The heel is then lifted from the ground by 
the action of the very strong muscles situated on the back part of the 
leg, called the gastrocnemius and soleus muscles.” 

“ At the moment that the body is raised and tilted forward in this 
way, the other foot is lifted entirely from the ground and swung for¬ 
ward so as to take a step in advance. As soon as the body has been 



Fig 1 . 51. 




MANUAL MOTION. 


89 


carried far enough in an onward direction, the second foot is also 
raised in the same manner as before, while the first is swung 1 forward 
in its turn to take another step. In this way the two legs act alter¬ 
nately, the weight of the body being carried forward first by one and 
then by the other; all the muscles, however, upon the two sides com¬ 
bining harmoniously in their action, so as to produce an easy, grace¬ 
ful, and continuous movement. 

“ In the act of walking, as above described, one foot is always upon 
the ground, and the weight of the body is mainly supported in this 
way by bearing upon the toes; it is only lifted forward alternately on 
the two sides by the leverage of the bones of the foot. Consequently 
no violent muscular exertion is required, and the movement can be 
kept up for a long time without fatigue. 

“ The act of running, however, instead of being a series of steps, is 
performed by a succession of leaps or springs, in each of which the 
whole body is thrown clear of the ground, and carried forward by the 
impetus which it has received. In order to accomplish this, at the mo¬ 
ment the heel is about to be raised by the action of the muscles above 
described, the knee and hip joints are first bent and then instantly 
straightened by the sudden contraction of their exterior muscles. 
The whole limb thus acts like a powerful spring, which, by its sudden 
extension, throws the entire body off the ground and carries it through 
the air in an onward direction. The opposite limb is at the same 
time thrown forward to receive the weight of the body and to per¬ 
form, in its turn, and with similar rapidity, the same movements. 
The speed of the runner depends on the vigor of the muscular con¬ 
tractions, and the swiftness with which the successive motions are 
performed. 

“ The act of jumping is accomplished in a similar way to that of 
running, except that the same motions are executed by both limbs to¬ 
gether, so that each leap is performed by itself, and is not combined 
with others in a continuous movement.” 

Manual Motion. —The great diversity of the movements of the 
hand admit of no general description. When we consider the large 
number of muscles which must be made to co-operate harmoniously 
in the production of a single movement of the hand, we are led to 
marvel at the wonderful degree of delicacy of touch and motion that 
is possible to a hand carefully trained to fine work. Jewelers, watch¬ 
makers, microscopists, and engravers exhibit this nicety of control of 


90 


ANATOMY, rHYSWLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


the muscles of the arm and hand in a remarkable degree. The differ¬ 
ence between a trained and an untrained hand is readily seen in com¬ 
paring the manual motions of a skilled artisan with those of a back¬ 
woodsman, whose finest tool has been an ax or possibly a chisel. 

In the dextrous use of the hand and arm, man is far superior to all 
lower orders. He may not be able to construct a bird’s nest exactly 
like the one found in the forest tree, but he can make that which is 
vastly more delicate and more beautiful. If we except the human 
brain, with its marvelous properties of thinking, feeling, and willing, 
there is no more wonderful exhibition of creative skill than in the 
structure and functions of the human hand. 

Speaking. —While voice is not wholly the result of‘muscular action, 
special organs being required to act in conjunction with the forcible ex¬ 
pulsion of air by the expiratory muscles, it is really one result of motion, 
since without muscular effort the most elaborate vocal apparatus in the 
world could accomplish nothing. The great share of created animaLs 
possess some form of speech, as well as man, and it is in all produced 
chiefly by muscular action. This is as true of the birds which whistle 
and carol in the trees, as of the tiny insects which chirp and hum amid 
the shrubs and flowers. 

Muscular Action in Respiration.— As already stated, respiration 
is performed by muscles which are really voluntary in character, being 
under the control of the will, but which are so controlled by the nervous 
system that they are kept in constant motion. The wisdom of this ar¬ 
rangement will be readily seen. Involuntary muscles are very slow in 
then action, while voluntary muscles act promptly and with vigor. 
Respiration is a function which requires continuous, and often rapid, ex¬ 
ecution. In emergencies it is often necessary that air should be inhaled 
or expelled with great promptness, which can only be done by voluntary 
muscles. A main, it is sometimes essential that the function of breath in or 

° o 

should be suspended temporarily, as when the body is immersed in water 
or surrounded with smoke or noxious fumes, which could not well be 
done if it were performed by involuntary muscles. 

Muscular Action iu Digestion. —Prehension, the act of taking 
food, mastication, and the preliminary act of swallowing, are all performed 
by voluntary muscles; while the movement of the food along the ali¬ 
mentary canal, bringing it in contact with the various digestive juices 
and the absorbents by which it is digested and taken up into the blood, 


MUSCULAR ACTION. 


91 


is wholly due to involuntary muscles which form a large part of the 
walls of the oesophagus and the whole alimentary canal. The churning 
action of the stomach by which the gastric juice is as it were squeezed 
out and mingled with the food to be digested, is also due to muscular 
contraction. 

Muscular Action in tlie Circulation of the Blood. —The cir¬ 
culation of the blood, through the means of the heart and blood-vessels, 
is almost entirely due to muscular effort. The heart is itself nothing 
more nor less than a hollow muscle, and the arteries are simply muscular 
tubes. The contractile action of the heart is continued through the 
arteries, and thus the blood is forced out into the veins, through which 
it is urged along, both by the pressure from behind and by the squeez¬ 
ing action of the muscles as they bulge in contraction. 

Relation of Muscles and Nerves.— During life the muscular sys¬ 
tem is wholly controlled by the nervous system. Every contraction, 
whether of a voluntary or of an involuntary muscle, is instigated by an 
impulse sent out from the nervous system. Hence it will be readily 
seen that the muscles are wholly under the domain of the nerves, and 
must depend for their utility and efficiency upon the integrity of the 
source of their force and activity. The muscles may be in reality strong, 
being well nourished ; but if the nervous system is weak and exhausted, 
the muscles cannot manifest the force of which they are really capable. 

Fatigue. —Muscular action occasions muscular wear and w r aste. 
The most delicate contraction of the smallest muscle is accompanied by 
a definite amount of destruction of tissue. The greater the amount or 
intensity of muscular effort, the greater the amount of waste. Only a 
certain degree of destruction of tissue by action is possible. After the 
muscular tissues have wasted to a certain degree, they refuse to respond 
to the demands of the nerves. A violent effort of the will may secure 
a slight additional amount of w~ork, but even the most powerful exercise 
of will cannot excite to action a muscular system which has been ex¬ 
hausted by prolonged activity. The sense of weariness, inability or in¬ 
capacity for action which follows violent or prolonged exertion, is called 
fatigue. Its cause we have already seen. The sense of fatigue is a de¬ 
mand of nature for rest, for time to repair the wasted tissues, an admoni¬ 
tion that the system must have rest. This provision nature has wisely 
made to oblige us to stop the vital machinery before it has become so 
much damaged that repairs cannot be made. This admonition comes 


92 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


with such force that it cannot be resisted for any length of time. Un¬ 
fortunately for the race, however, ingenious man has discovered that 
there are agents which will quiet or smother this warning voice, thus 
allowing the individual to go on destroying his tissues beyond the point 
of safety at which nature admonishes him to stop. Alcohol and tobacco 
are among the most active and frequently used of these substances, and 
tea and coffee belong in the same category. Very strangely, too, these 
agents are employed and recommended for the very purpose which ren¬ 
ders them dangerous, and that, too, by men of learning and intelligence 
on most subjects, but who fail to see the folly of their action in this 
particular case. Alcohol, tobacco, tea, coffee, opium, hashish, and other 
narcotics and stimulants, will make a man feel well, and think he is 
not tired when he is exhausted; but they will not give him additional 
strength. By deceiving him they will enable him to get a little more 
work out of his muscles, to waste them a little more, but they do not 
supply him any force to use in the extra labor. A tired man is no more 
saved from the effects of overlabor, except in his feelings, by a glass of 
grog, a pipe or chew of tobacco, or a cigar, or a cup of tea or coffee, than 
a patient is saved from the results of the surgeon’s knife by being made 
insensible by an anesthetic. The action is precisely the same in both 
cases. The individual feels better, but only because his sensibilities are 
benumbed, because he is deceived, not because he is really better. The 
fact is that he is worse off. Statistics show that patients are less likely 
to make good recoveries from the effects of surgical operations when 
chloroform is used than when it is not used. Just so it is with the 
substances named; when taken to relieve fatigue or to enable a person 
to do more work, they really damage the individual more or less per¬ 
manently, because they make it impossible for him to recruit so well 
when the period of rest is obtained. The proper course to pursue is to 
stop work when nature says “ enough,” and rest. Stimulants only put 
off the day of reckoning for a little time, and they run up an enormous 
account to be answered for when the day of retribution comes. 

Muscular Electricity. —Experiments upon both human beings and 
animals have clearly demonstrated that the human body is a real elec¬ 
trical battery, generating appreciable quantities of electricity by every 
vital act. Every muscular contraction generates a current @f electricity 
the exact quantity and quality of which can be determined by the 
proper instruments. There is no special electrical apparatus in the 
human body, as in certain fishes and other curious animals which pro- 


HYGIENE OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM. 


93 


duce this subtile agent in prodigious quantities, but the whole body de¬ 
velops it. Every breath we draw, every heart-beat, every wink of the 
eye, even every thought, generates the same element that darts de¬ 
struction from the thunder cloud, and flashes intelligence around the 
world. This interesting fact has an important bearing on the question 
which has occupied so many scientific minds, viz., the nature of vital 
force. The appearance would seem to be that the same force which in 
the living tissues is manifested as vitality, when the tissues are worn out 
and broken down appears as electricity or some other commonly known 
form of force. 

Muscular Sense. —The muscles possess in but very slight degree, if 
at all, the general sensibility which belongs to most other tissues. They 
have little sensibility to pain. They may be pierced, cut, or even torn, 
without giving much pain. A peculiar pain is produced by cramp, or 
spasmodic contraction of a muscle. There is good evidence, however, 
that the muscles are compensated for the want of general sensibility by 
the possession of a sense peculiar to themselves, known as the sense of 
weight , or the muscular sense. It is by means of this sense that we 
appreciate resistance or judge of the weight of various bodies. 

Rigor Mortis. —The peculiar rigidity which comes on soon after 
death in man and animals is supposed to be due to coagulation of the 
muscular fibre. It is the beginning of decomposition, and indicates the 
death of the muscular fibres. It is observed that in persons who die 
suddenly in a state of comparative health, as from accident, rigor mortis 
does not appear for some hours after death, and then remains for some 
time. In persons who die from long-continued or wasting disease, the 
opposite in both particulars is true. 

HYGIENE OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM, 

The muscles, perhaps, more than any other organs of the body, 
depend for their health upon regular, systematic, adequate, and proper 
exercise. By exercise, the muscular fibres are made to contract, and 
in doing so, the old, stagnant, venous blood is squeezed out, and new, 
fresh, invigorating, vitalizing blood takes its place. By this means 
their vital activities are quickened and their growth increased. There 
is evidence for believing that muscular fibres do not increase in num¬ 
ber in the voluntary muscles; but it is certain that they increase very 
materially in size and in firmness, and hence in strength. The 



94 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


strength of a muscle depends upon the individual strength of each of 
its fibres, as its strength is but the combined strength of its compo¬ 
nent parts. If each fibre becomes large, firm, and strong in conse¬ 
quence of use, the whole muscle becomes so; and that this is the case 
we have abundant evidence in the ponderous right arm of the black¬ 
smith, which outgrows the other in consequence of constant exercise 
in swinging a heavy hammer. The lower extremities of a ballet 
dancer become developed in a proportionately large degree, from the 
trying exercises to which they are accustomed. 

Effect of Disuse of Muscles. —Nature never attempts to maintain 
a useless organ, and almost as soon as an organ is not used she sets to 
work to demolish it; or at any rate she wastes no time in endeavor¬ 
ing to keep it in repair when it is not needed, or at least is not used. 
This is true all through the vital economy, and is nowhere more 
clearly seen than in the muscular system. A disused muscle soon 
becomes thin, pale, relaxed, weak; and after a time a change begins 
which is termed fatty degeneration. Nature does not think it worth 
while to keep so much valuable nitrogenous matter lying idle, and so 
she sets to work taking the muscle to pieces and carrying it away little 
by little for use elsewhere, depositing in place of the muscle substance 
little particles of fat until the whole muscle is changed to fat. This 
change actually occurs in cases of paralysis; and when it has been 
completed, restoration of the function of the muscle is impossible. 

The Hindoo devotee who in blind zeal for his religion holds out 
his arm until the muscles shrink and shrivel up, leaving the arm but 
a useless appendage of the body, more dead than alive, is violating 
the law of nature which demands exercise for health no more than 
the student who shuts himself up with his books until his limbs grow 
lank and thin and his fingers bony with physical idleness; and the lat¬ 
ter acts no more wisely in sacrificing himself upon the shrine of learn¬ 
ing, than the other in deforming himself to appease the wrath or win 
the favor of Buddha. 

How to Take Exercise. —It is not sufficient to simply take exer¬ 
cise indiscriminately and without reference to the object for which it 
is taken, the manner, time, etc. It must be taken regularly, sys¬ 
tematically, at proper times, and in proper quantity. Perhaps we 
cannot do better in treating this subject practically than to ask and 
answer some of the most important questions relating to this matter. 


WHEN TO EXERCISE. 


95 


1. When is the best time to exercise? There is a popular theory 
extant that exercise taken early in the morning has some specific vir¬ 
tue superior to that taken at any other time. After careful observa¬ 
tion on the subject we have become convinced that this popular no¬ 
tion is a mistake when adopted as a rule for everybody. For many 
busy professional men, especially lawyers, editors, authors, clergymen, 
teachers, and others whose vocations keep them mostly indoors, the 
morning may be the only time when exercise can be taken conven¬ 
iently ; and if not taken at this time it is likely to be neglected alto¬ 
gether. Such persons, unless they are laboring under some special de¬ 
rangement of the health, as dyspepsia or some other constitutional 
malady, had better by far take the morning walk or other form of ex¬ 
ercise than to take none at all. However, we are pretty well con¬ 
vinced that for most persons the middle of the forenoon is a much 
better time to take any kind of active or vigorous exercise. In the 
morning the circulation is generally weakest and the supply of nerve 
force is the least abundant. In the forenoon, when the breakfast has 
been eaten and digestion has become well advanced, the system is at 
its maximum of vigor; hence, if the individual is at liberty to choose 
his time for exercise, this should be his choice. 

For poor sleepers, a half-hour’s exercise taken in the evening not 
long before retiring will often act like a soporific, and without any 
of the unpleasant after-effects of drugs. 

Vigorous exercise should never be taken immediately nor within 
an hour after a meal, and should not be taken immediately before eat¬ 
ing. Disregard for this rule is a very common cause of dyspepsia. 

2. What kind of exercise shall be taken ? The answer to this ques¬ 
tion must, of course, vary with the individual. Exercise must be mod¬ 
ified to suit the strength, the age, the sex, and even the tastes of the 
individual. As a general rule, persons who take exercise for health 
are apt to overdo the matter, the result of which is damage rather than 
benefit. For most persons there is no more admirable and advanta¬ 
geous form of exercise than walking; but many find walking simply 
for exercise too tedious to persevere in it regularly. Such will find ad¬ 
vantage in walking in companies, provided care is taken to avoid ad 
such questionable diversions as walking matches or any kind of ex¬ 
ercise in which there will be a strife which will be likely to excite to 
excess. 

Horseback riding, for those who ride well and enjoy this form of 


96 


ANATOMY , PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


exercise, may be of great benefit. It is not so well suited for ladies as 
for men, however, on account of the awkward and unnatural manner 
in which fashion compels them to ride. It is impossible for a lady to 
ride with the same degree of comfort, ease, and grace that her male 
companion may, on account of the one-sided way in which she sits in 
the saddle. In many other countries ladies ride in the same fashion 
as men; v T ith them, of course, this objection does not hold. 

Horseback riding' is an excellent aid to digestion, and often effect- 
ually relieves habitual constipation of the bowels. 

Carriage riding is worth little as a form of exercise except for very 
feeble invalids, for whom the gentle swaying of the vehicle and the ex¬ 
citement of viewing objects seldom seen may be sufficient and appro¬ 
priate exercise. Riding in a lumber wagon over a corduroy road is 
about the only kind of carriage riding which is worth speaking of as 
exercise for people in ordinary health. 

Skating, rowing, racing, base-ball, foot-ball, dancing, and most other 
exercises of the sort, are more often harmful than otherwise, because 
carried to excess and associated with other evils of a pernicious char¬ 
acter. Performance upon the trapeze, boxing, and pugilistic training 
are open to the same objection. Calisthenics, for school-children and 
young students, is a most admirable form of exercise. It is also well 
adapted to invalids who are unable to walk more than a short dis¬ 
tance at a time. Full directions for the use of calisthenics, or gym¬ 
nastic exercises, are given in a chapter devoted to the subject. In our 
opinion, every family ought to be fitted out with all the conveniences 
for parlor gymnastics. They afford not only healthful exercise but a 
large amount of excellent amusement for the little folks. 

The health-lift is a form of exercise too important to be over¬ 
looked. We have carefully tested this form of exercise, and believe it 
to be an exceedingly valuable measure for those whose employments 
are sedentary and whose time for exercise is limited. However, we 
can indorse but a small portion of what has been claimed for it by 
persons who have made its use and sale a specialty. Again, we have 
no sympathy with the course which has been taken by most manu¬ 
facturers in charging an enormous price for a piece of apparatus which 
really costs but very little and could well be afforded for one-half the 
money charged. The chief benefits of the health-lift can be derived 
from a very simple form of apparatus which the reader will find de¬ 
scribed in the chapter on gymnastic exercises. 


DEFICIENT EXERCISE BY STUDENTS. 


97 


For the majority of persons, no form of exercise is more highly 
beneficial health wise than some kind of physical labor. For ladies, 
general housework is admirably adapted to bring into play all the 
different muscles of the body, while affording such a variety of differ¬ 
ent exercises and such frequent change that no part need be very 
greatly fatigued. There are thousands of young ladies pining under 
the care of their family physician in spite of all he can do by the most 
learned and complicated prescriptions, for whom a change of air or a 
year’s residence in some foreign clime, or some similar expensive proj¬ 
ect, is proposed, when all in the world that is needed to make the 
delicate creatures well is to require them to change places with their 
mothers for a few weeks or months. Let them cease thrumming the 
piano or guitar for a time, and learn to cook, bake, wash, mend, scrub, 
sweep, and perform the thousand and one little household duties that 
have made their mothers and grandmothers well and robust before 
them. We made such a prescription once for a young lady who had 
been given up to die of consumption by a grayheaded doctor, and 
whose friends were sadly watching her decline, and in six weeks the 
young miss was well and has been so ever since; but we entailed her 
everlasting dislike, and have no doubt that any physician or other 
person who should adopt the same course in a similar case would be 
similarly rewarded. 

For young men there is no better or healthier exercise than saw¬ 
ing and chopping wood, doing chores about the house, working in the 
garden, caring for horses or cows, clearing walks, bringing water, or 
even helping their mothers in laundry work. Such exercise is light, 
varied, oft changing, and answers all the requirements for health most 
admirably. We can heartily recommend it, and from personal expe¬ 
rience, too. We advise all young men, who can possibly get a chance, 
to adopt this form of exercise as being the most certain of bringing 
back the largest returns for a given expenditure of force of any which 
can be suggested. There is no gymnasium in the world which is bet¬ 
ter to secure excellent results from exercise than the kitchen, the 
washroom, the workshop, the woodyard, the barn, and the garden. 
These are nature’s gymnasia. They require no outlay for special 
appliances, and are always fitted up for use. 

Deficient Exercise by Students.— The common idea that study 
and brain work are harmful has chiefly grown out of the fact that 
students usually confine themselves too closely to their books, keep 

7 


98 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY , AND HYGIENE. 


late hours, and take as little as possible of active out-of-door exercise. 
There is no doubt but that the majority of students could do more 
work and better if they would devote at least two hours of each day 
to purely physical exercise. In ancient Greece, in the palmy days of 
that empire, physical training was considered as much a part of the 
necessary education of young men as their mental culture. Every 
inducement was offered to them to make themselves strong, vigorous, 
and athletic. Their schools were called gymnasia, on account of the 
attention given to gymnastics. The young women, too, were trained 
in physical exercises as well as the young men. Small waists and 
delicate forms, white, soft, helpless hands and tiny feet were not 
prized among the pioneers of civilization. The mothers of heroes and 
philosophers were not pampered and petted and spoiled by indul¬ 
gence. They were inured to toil, to severe exercise. Their bodies 
were developed so as to lit them for the duties of maternity and give 
them constitutions to bequeath to their children which would insure 
hardihood, courage, and stamina in the conflict with the world to ob¬ 
tain a subsistence, and with human foernen in the rage of battle. 
The women developed by this system of culture were immortalized in 
marble, and the beauty of their forms has been the envy of the world 
from that day to this; yet no one seems to think of attempting to 
gain the same beauty in the same way. It might be done : there is no 
reason why it cannot be; but the only way is the one which the Gre¬ 
cian women adopted,—physical culture. 

Overtraining. —The careful observation of results in large numbers 
of cases shows very clearly that there is such a thing as overtraining, 
and that excessive development of the muscular system is not only not 
advantageous but absolutely harmful. Trainers are not long-lived. Dr. 
W inship, who developed his muscles until he was able to lift over three 
thousand pounds, died when he should have been in his prime. The re¬ 
sult of overtraining or excessive development of the muscular system is 
the weakening of other vital parts of the body. Symmetrical develop¬ 
ment is the best for health and long life. This is what we plead for, not 
for extremes in any direction. Let the nerves and the muscles be de¬ 
veloped together and equably, and we shall have better results from both 
than would otherwise be possible. Mens sana in corpore sano was the 
motto of the ancient Greeks ; and the experience of every day shows 
that the man with strong muscles and good digestion, with fair intel¬ 
lectual abilities, is the one who wins the goals to-day in the strifes for 




EVILS OF TIGHT-LACING. 


99 


wealth and fame and all that men seek after. “ A sound mind in a 
sound body ” is as necessary for assured success in life in the nineteenth 
century as when the sentiment was first inscribed upon the gates of the 
temples in ancient Greece. 

Necessity for Unrestrained Action.— A muscle tied up is ren¬ 
dered as helpless as though it were paralyzed. It will be recollected 
that when a muscle acts it does so by swelling out in thickness, while 
contracting in length. From this it will be evident that if a tight band 
is put around a muscle in such a manner as to prevent its expansion or 
increase in thickness, it cannot possibly act. Hence, a fundamental 
requisite of healthful muscular action is entire freedom from constraint. 
Unrestrained action is indispensable to complete action and perfect de¬ 
velopment. When a broken arm is done up in a splint for a few weeks, 
upon removing the bandage it is usually found that the arm has 
shrunken in size ; the muscles have wasted, partly in consequence of 
pressure, and partly on account of the enforced inaction of the muscles. 
The very same thing happens wherever pressure is brought to bear upon 
the muscular tissues. A ring worn upon a finger causes atrophy, or 
wasting of the tissues beneath it. By placing an elastic band around 
soft tissues they may be absorbed altogether, in consequence of the 
pressure. This action has been taken advantage of for the removal 
of tumors in certain parts of the body. 

Evils of Tight-Lacing and Corset-Wearing. —See Figs. 52 to 55. 
The wear in or of clothing 1 drawn tight about the waist, either with a cor- 
set or without, is attended with most serious evil consequences. With¬ 
out dwelling upon the evils which result from the forcible displacement 
of important internal organs and the injury to the nervous system, 
the digestion, and sundry other evil consequences, we wish to call atten¬ 
tion to the fact that continuous pressure upon these parts may cause 
such a degree of degeneration of the muscles of the chest as to seriously 
impair the breathing capacity. Unused muscles waste away, as already 
observed; and when pressure is applied in addition, the wasting and 
degeneration become still more marked. This is exactly what happens 
with those who wear their clothing tight about the waist. This is the 
reason why ladies who have been accustomed to wear corsets declare so 
emphatically that they “ could not live without them,” that they feel 
when their corset is off as though they “ should fall down into a heap.” 

The evidence of injury is complete ; and it is so universal that few 


100 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


women will venture to deny that the practice is harmful, but they try 
to shield themselves by declaring that they are sure their corset does 
them no harm, that it is very loose, etc., etc. We scarcely ever met a 
lady who would admit that her corset was tight, and we have had oc¬ 
casion to speak with hundreds of ladies on this point in making medical 



Pig:. 52. A waist of natural 

shape. 



Pig’. 53. A waist compressed by 
tight-lacing. 


examinations. We read the other day in a newspaper of a young 
woman who actually broke a rib in the attempt to gain another half¬ 
inch on her corset string. She well deserved the accident, no doubt ; 
but the chances are ten to one that she would assert in the most positive 
terms, if expostulated with about the matter, that her corset was “ quite 
loose,” and to demonstrate the matter would show you how much more 
she could pinch up when she tried, or something of the sort. The fact 
is, ladies do not really know when their clothing is tight about the waist 
and when it is loose. The tissues have been so long under pressure that 
they have lost a good share of their sensibility, and clothing really seems 
loose to them which to a man would be so uncomfortably tight as to 
make him utterly wretched. 

Pantaloons made tight at the top are as harmful as tight dresses, as 
was well shown in the Russian army some years ago, when the evil of 
wearing the pantaloons held up by a belt about the waist became so 
serious among the soldiers as to require interference on the part of the 
government. The men had become unable to endure marches of any 





PULL-BACKS , LOW SHOULDERS, ETC, 


101 



distance; but upon being compelled to wear suspenders for the panta¬ 
loons, they speedily recovered. 

Elastics. —The clastic bands worn about the leg to keep the stock¬ 
ing in place, and sometimes used upon the arms to hold the sleeves up, 
are more harmful than is usually imagined. The long stockings worn 
by females bring the clastic just above the knee, 
where the large blood-vessels of the limb come 
near the surface and are in position to be com¬ 
pressed against the thigh bone in such a way 
as to impede the circulation. It is not to be 
wondered at that under these circumstances, in 
addition to the evil of thin stockings, and thin, 
tight shoes, there should seem to be a necessity 
for artificial calves, which we are informed on 
credible authority have actually been employed. 

The stockings, as well as the other articles of 
clothing, should be suspended from the shoulders 
either by means of separate suspenders or bv at- Fi ^- 64 - The ribs in their 

“ natural position. 

tachment to a waist with broad shoulder-bearings. 

O 

Pull-Backs, Low Shoulders, etc. —The following on this subject 
we quote from “Evils of Fashionable Dress”:—* 

“ Although the corset is the chief offender in constraining the healthy 
activity of the vital organs of the body, there are other modes of dress 
which deserve attention on account of their in¬ 
terference with some of the bodily functions. 

When the leaders of fashion decreed that the 
previously indispensable crinoline must be dis¬ 
carded, the sensible part of the world rejoiced, 
thinking that Dame Fashion was really about 
to reform her ways. But such hopes were dashed 
to the ground when the present fashionable style 
of dress appeared. Formerly, fashionable ladies 
sailed along the streets like animated balloons, 
monopolizing the whole walk with their wide- 
spreading skirts. Now they have reached the opposite extreme, and we 
see them wriggling along like competitors in a sack-race. Indeed, it 
is a marvel how that locomotion is a possibility, so greatly hampered are 



Fig*. 55. Shows the dis¬ 
tortion of the ribs produced 
by corset-wearing. 


*Good Health Pub. Co., Battle Creek, Mich. 









102 


ANATOMY , PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


the limbs by numerous heavy skirts drawn tightly back and fastened at 
the sides. Anything like graceful ease in walking is impossible. A 
Chinese wriggle is the result of the best attempt. 

“ The motions of the arms are curtailed to an almost equal extent 
by the fashion of the garments about the shoulders. They are so 
made that it is next to impossible for the wearer to extend the hand 
an inch above the head. The arms are actually pinioned. Why not 
have the shoulders of ladies’ garments made like those of men, which 
allow perfect freedom of motion to the arms ? Some of the more re¬ 
cent fashions are adopting this style.” 

Tight Shoes. —We have already said so much on this subject in 
connection with the hygiene of the bones that we scarcely need add 
anything here, except to say that the muscles of the feet suffer equally 
with the bones, perhaps more seriously, being more soft and yielding. 
We cannot find words to express our views of this foolish and absurd 
custom. There seems not the slightest shadow of excuse for it, except 
that Fashion dictates that woman must have a small foot; and if Nat¬ 
ure has made such a terrible blunder as to give her one of decent size 
she must be tortured for the mistake for which she is not responsible, 
during the period of her natural—or rather her artificial—life. Fash¬ 
ion dictates a similar mandate in China, and the amount of suffering 
which the fashionable young women of that country are obliged to en¬ 
dure is even greater than in this country. Perhaps we cannot better 
impress our readers with the absurdity of this really barbarous fash¬ 
ion than by quoting from an interesting work entitled “ Oriental 
Women ” the following graphic description of the extent to which the 
practice is carried in China:— 

“ It is supposed by many foreigners that this curious compression 
of the feet is accomplished by means of wooden or iron-bound shoes 
placed upon the feet in infancy, effectually dwarfing them by prevent¬ 
ing their growth altogether. But this is by no means the case. It is 
next to an impossibility for a foreign gentleman to secure the privi¬ 
lege of examining a foot thus deformed; but after more than a week 
of the most skillful diplomacy, in all of which I was aided and abetted 
by Miss Lucy H. IToag, preceptress of the mission-school for girls in 
Kiu-Kiang, I succeeded in persuading a girl about fifteen years of age 
to allow me to be present when the gay covering was removed from 
her foot; afterward in Shanghai, by the liberal use of money, an el- 



DEFORMING THE FEET. 


103 


derly woman of the small-footed class was persuaded to gratify my 
curiosity by removing the bandage from her foot; and from the 
knowledge gained on those occasions and afterward I will briefly de¬ 
scribe the method of ‘ making the foot/ as it is called. 

“ The binding is rarely, if ever, commenced before the child is five 
years, and in most cases not until she is six or seven years old. This 
delay is to allow the 
limbs a vigorous 
start and growth, 
and the girl to learn 
how to walk firmly. 

The operators are 
usually women who 
make this their bus¬ 
iness, although fre- 
quently the mother, 
or some other female 
member of the 
household, takes the 
matter in hand. In 
the first place, all 
the toes, excepting 
the great toe, are 
folded down under 
the foot, the fleshy 
part of the heel is 

forced downward Fig-. 56. Outline of Chinese lady’s foot and slipper, showing 
-i » -i -i effects of bandaging. 

and iorward, and a 

bandage (consisting of a strip of colored muslin four or five feet long 
and three inches wide) is wound back and forth in a figure of eight, 
over the folded toes, along the length of the foot, across the instep, 
and around the heel, pressing that toward the great toe to shorten 
the foot. The bandage is wound snugly at first, and then tight¬ 
ened a little at each succeeding operation. This gradually throws 
the instep up, and virtually breaks it, so that when the bandage is re¬ 
moved the front part of the foot may be moved like a door upon its 
hinges. Under this process the foot becomes attenuated until it is 
merely a mass of bones covered with tendons and skin. The develop¬ 
ment of the muscles of the calf is also checked, and the leg tapers from 






ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY , A AD HYGIENE. 


104 

the knee downward, and the entire limb loses its elasticity, although 
no excessive weakness is observed. How the circulation is kept up 
through the extremities is more than I can understand. 

O 

“ In the course of six or eight years, if daily attended to, the elon¬ 
gated bone of the heel, which is about all that is left of this part of 
the foot, is brought within a very few inches of the great toe; the 
broken instep and folded toes are bound together with the ankle in an 
ugly bunch bulging outward above what seems to be the foot, and the 
oreat toe and the heel alone aie thrust into the little embroidered 

O 

shoe, and it is pronounced a perfect lady-foot. The heel is usually an 
inch or more higher than the toe, and a block of wood is placed in the 
back part of the shoe to support it. This gives the woman the ap¬ 
pearance of walking upon her tiptoes, as she wriggles along, stepping 
with nervous rapidity, and throwing out her arms to balance herself. 
A lady with very small feet is obliged to use a cane in walking, or to 
rest her hand upon the shoulder of a servant, which is a mark of es¬ 
pecial gentility. 

“ The wide and embroidered trousers conceal the unsightly bunch 
above the shoe, and the uninstructed observer supposes that he is 
looking upon a tiny but perfectly formed foot. The length of the 
shoe is really a mere matter of taste. The most fashionable length is, 
I think, about three inches, although I have a pair in my possession, 
once worn by a woman in Foochow, which are but two and one-half 
inches long on the bottom. Of course, so far as any heavy work is 
concerned, small-footed women are useless; and the housework in 
families where the women have small feet is always performed by 
males, or by female servants who have natural feet. 

“ At first the operation of bandaging is very painful. The band¬ 
age is removed every morning; the foot is cleansed, carefully inspected, 
and then rebound. Of course, before the foot is utterly ‘ dead/ as it 
is termed, the quickening of the circulation when the bandage is re¬ 
moved and the severe compression when it is again applied, cause ex¬ 
cruciating pain. In the early morning hours the traveler, in moving 
about a Chinese city, will hear from almost every house the cries of 
little girls undergoing their daily torture. 

“ A well-known missionary gives the following illustration:— 

“ ‘ I remember being greatly distressed one day by the crying of a 
child : “ O auntie, auntie, do nt do so, it hurts ; it hurts so much ! ” 
And then followed a long, quivering, sobbing “ O-o-oh ! ” I tried not 


CHINESE COMPRESSION OF THE FEET. 


105 


to mind it at first, and kept on with my writing for a little while ; but 
I couldn’t stand it very long,—the sobbing was too piteous. So I laid 
down my pen, put on my hat, and went round the corner into the alley 
from which the sounds came. It was dirty enough and narrow enough, 
I can assure you; but that was nothing. I only wanted to ascertain 
what could be the cause of this most pitiful outcry, and what it was that 
“ auntie ” was doing. So I pushed open the door that led into one of 
the court-yards, and there I saw how the matter stood. On a high 
bench, with her feet dangling half-way to the ground, sat a little girl 
about five years old, her face swollen with crying, and the tears pouring 
down her flushed cheeks; and near by, seated in a chair, was that 
dreadful “ auntie,” a fat, middle-aged woman, who held one of the child’s 
feet in her hand, while the other foot was hanging down bandaged very 
tight, and looking more like a large pear, tied round with blue cotton 
cloth, than a natural-shaped foot. There the old auntie sat, with 
one little bare foot in her hand, looking at it first on one side and then 
on the other, and particularly examining the parts where the little toes 
had been turned under and compressed by the bandages which had just 
been removed. She found these parts full of cracks and sores, and into 
these what do you think she put? Powdered saltpeter , to keep the 
sores from mortifying; and then she bound up the little foot again as 
tight as she could, and left the poor little sufferer, with streaming eyes 
and dangling feet, still sitting on the bench! ’ 

“Girls often grow thin and spiritless during the first year after 
binding is begun. Often the skin cracks or (just over the instep) it 
bursts, and severe disease sets in, and not infrequently mortification or 
gangrene ensues; and as amputation is regarded as very dishonorable, 
and is, therefore, not allowed, of course the little sufferer soon dies. 

“ When three or four years have passed, if the operation has been 
carefully performed, the foot becomes, so far as feeling is concerned, 
lifeless, and ceases to give pain. But, all through life, the bandaging 
must be continued, to keep the foot in shape, and to enable the woman 
to walk at all. Unbandaged, the foot would have no firmness,—it 
•would be a mere powerless mass upon the limb, with which it would be 
impossible to move. With the foot firmly bandaged, some of these poor 
creatures mince along at quite a respectable rate of speed, and strange 
as it may seem, some of them will even walk ten or twelve miles in a 
day on their way to and from some especially sacred temple, or in mak¬ 
ing visits to their friends. 


106 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


“ Notwithstanding the severe pain resulting from this bandaging at 
first, mothers insist upon it, and little girls are often quite anxious to 
have it begun ; for it is the fashion, and, according to the average fe¬ 
male estimate in all lands, a little suffering, more or less, is of no conse¬ 
quence when contrasted with the disgrace of being ‘ out of fashion/ Of 
course, the little girls are not always under the immediate eye of their 
mothers; and when, for a moment, the pain overmasters their pride, 
they will slyly loosen the bandage; but the fault is soon discovered, and 
the relieved member unmercifully brought back to its cruel bondage. 

“ So far as I can learn from those most familiar with the facts, com¬ 
pression of the feet is more inconvenient than dangerous, either to life or 
health ; and intelligent natives have frequently assured me, with all that 
superior wisdom which an educated Chinaman knows so well how to 
assume, that they did not regard it as half so pernicious as the custom 
our American ladies have at times adopted, of compressing their waists, 
since the former, at the worst, only endangers the individual, while the 
latter entails feebleness and suffering upon posterity. 

“ Some travelers in China profess to be greatly pleased with what 
they call the dainty little feet of the ladies, and go into ecstasies over 
their exquisitely wrought shoes ; but to me, especially after I became 
familiar with the modus operandi, it was a hideous and repulsive de¬ 
formity, all the more offensive since it was self-imposed. No amount of 
sentiment could reconcile me to the sight of those poor cripples hobbling 
along in momentary danger of falling,—the very picture of degraded 
helplessness. Perhaps in j ustice I ought to add, that some few China¬ 
men of advanced ideas whom I met, professed to regard this custom as 
useless and wrong; but even while they were ready to admit its evils, 
they were no less emphatic in the opinion that there is no help for it. 
Custom is a law, which no one dreams of violating.” 

Bad Positions. —Certain parts of the muscular system suffer seri¬ 
ously from the results of bad positions assumed in the different attitudes 
which may be taken in lying, sitting, standing, and walking ; to these 
we wish to call especial attention. 

Bad Positions in Bleeping .—As we spend one-third of our time 
in bed,—at least most persons should do so,—it is of great importance that 
the right position should be assumed, so that no injury may be received 
through prolonged constraint in an injurious position. Another fact 
of importance which is worthy of consideration here is that the process 
of repair goes on much more rapidly during sleep than at other times, 



IMPROPER POSITIONS. 


107 



Tig. 57. Improper position in sleeping. 


and since the greater share of deposit of new material takes place at this 
time it is obvious that any evil arising from an incorrect attitude will 
be rendered more or less permanent, the individual growing out of shape 
during sleep. 

We regard the old-fashioned 
bolster, not yet out of fashion 
we are sorry to say, as a most 
injurious article. When sur¬ 
mounted by a pillow, as it in¬ 
variably is, the position designed 
for the head is elevated so high 
that the sleeper cannot possibly 
put himself into a physiological 
position if he attempts to use them. If he lies upon his back, he is sit¬ 
ting half upright, and his spine is curved posteriorly. Fig. 57. If he lies 
upon either side the spine will be lent at a dangerous angle. Fig. 5S. 
We have no doubt that thousands of cases of lateral curvature of the 
spine have been produced by sleeping with the head too much elevated. 

A correct attitude in sleep is with the head and spine as nearly as 
possible parallel with the central line of the body. If the individual 
lies upon the back, no pillow at all, or a very thin one at most, should be 
employed. If he lies upon his side, a somewhat thicker pillow may be 
used, but only of sufficient 
thickness to raise the head to 
the axis of the body. Under 
no circumstances should bol¬ 
sters be employed. The side 
seems to be the most natural 
position in which to lie in 
sleeping, and the right side 
should be chosen by preference, 
especially by those who eat late 
before retiring, as this position favors the passage of the food from the 
stomach through the pylorus. 

Improper Attitudes in Sitting. —This subject we have already 
considered in part under the head of Hygiene of the Bones, and would 
refer the reader to the remarks there made. It must be added, however, 
that the distortions of the spine produced by improper positions in sitting 
are only in part due to the changes produced in the cartilages of the 



Fig;. 58. Improper position in sleeping. 







































108 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


spinal column, which have been pointed out. At the same time that 
changes in the cartilage discs are being made, changes are also taking 
place in the numerous muscles of the spine. When the body is bent 
out of its proper shape, while certain muscles are contracted, others are 



stretched beyond their natural length. If the tension is maintained but 
a short period, the natural elasticity of the muscle restores it to its natural 
length again, and so brings the body into proper position; but if it be 
prolonged, the tonicity of the muscular fibres is in some degree lost. 
They give up their elasticity and become abnormally lengthened without 
power to return fully to their natural position. At the same time, the 
muscles which are contracted while the curved position is maintained 
become by the exercise stronger than their antagonizing muscles, which 
are at the same time being weakened by w r ant of use and abnormal 

stretching. Thus the evil results are doubled, and the 
curvature which was at first a mere temporary evil 
becomes permanently fixed in the body by unequal 
muscular contraction. 

Figs. 59, 60, 61, 62, and 64, show positions 
which are very commonly assumed by students and 
others. The figures explain themselves at a glance. 
Many other bad positions are common, not a few of 
which are undoubtedly due to the improper construc¬ 
tion of chairs, sofas, school seats and desks. In many 
instances in schools, large students are placed in seats 
Fig-. 61. which are too low for them (see Fig. 60), and which 
require or at least strongly incline them to lean forward while engaged 
in their studies, making them round-shouldered and narrow-chested. It 





































IMPROPER ATTITUDES IN SITTING. 


109 


is probable, however, that the opposite error is much more common, and is 
certainly much more injurious, viz., placing small students in seats which 
aie too large and too high for them. When this is done, several evils 
result. The feet not being properly supported, the weight of the limbs 
constantly drags upon the spine, and requires that its muscles be kept con- 



Fig. 62. Fig. 63, 


stantly in contraction, and at a disadvantage. The desk being too high, 
in writing the arm must be lifted so high as to unavoidably produce 
curvature of the spine by elevation of the shoulder. Other evils are also 
almost certain to follow, among which are disturbances of vision from 
holding the book too near the eyes, disturbance of the circulation, espe¬ 
cially in the lower extremities, due to unnatural pressure on the under 
side of the limbs, and nervous affections from the unnatural strain upon 
the sensitive spine from the want of support to the limbs. 

Another evil very common in the construction of seats for school- 
children is placing the desk too far away from the seat (see Fig. 64), 
thus not only inviting but actually obliging the pupil to lean forward in 
writing, drawing, or ciphering. This evil is of no small consequence, 
and we are glad to see that it is being remedied by some manufact¬ 
urers. Still another common failure is neglect to so shape the backs 
of seats as to enable them to support the spine at its weakest point. 
This latter evil is probably as great a cause of curvature as any. The 
spine becomes tired from want of proper support, and the pupil leans 
over to get relief. We are glad to know that these difficulties, which 
have been recognized for several years, but have not been remedied on 
account of the failure of manufacturers to adapt their seats to the 
physiological wants of those who were to occupy them, need no longer 








110 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


exist on this account. An ingenious clergyman, who is also a professor 
in an educational institution, has, after several years of patient labor, suc¬ 
ceeded in producing a seat which seems to meet all the requirements of a 
perfect seat in a manner in which they have never been met before. It 
has been already introduced into hundreds of schools, and giv^s uni¬ 
versal satisfaction. We present in Fig. 65 a view of this seat* 



Fig\ 64. This cut shows the distorted and unhealthful position which a student is almost 
compelled to occupy by the old-style school seat. 


Students, and others as well, often assume most improper attitudes 
while pursuing their studies at their rooms, tilting their chairs back and 
placing the feet against the wall, upon the top of the table, or in some 
other elevated place. Such a position cannot be long maintained with¬ 
out discomfort, and discomfort is simply an admonition of nature to 
take a different attitude, to change the position. 

As a rule which may be universally followed, we know of no better 
than the simple one, “ sit gracefully.” A graceful position is a natural 
one, and will be productive neither of inconvenience nor injury. We 
grant that there are great difficulties in the way, since very few chairs 
are constructed on physiological principles ; but this is a matter which 
should receive attention in purchasing furniture. It is possible to obtain 

*Any one who desires further information concerning it can obtain full particulars by 
addressing the inventor, Eld. U. Smith, Battle Creek, Mich. 





IMPROPER ATTITUDES . 


Ill 


chairs which are reasonably correct in construction. The principal 
points which need to be looked at are the following:— 

1. A chair should be so constructed that it will properly support the 
back, not by one or two slats placed crosswise, but by a uniform curve, 
corresponding as nearly as possible with the natural curve of the spine. 
The whole spine should be supported without requiring a person to 



Fig 1 . 65. This is a representation of the Automatic School Seat, which encourages 

a correct attitude. 


throw the shoulders forward in order to bring the lower or middle part 
of the spine in contact with the back of the chair. 

2. It is also important that chairs should be of proper height, so that 
the weight of the limbs may be supported by the feet set squarely upon 
the floor instead of hanging upon the front edge of the chair. Nearly 
all chairs are made too high, if not for the adult persons in the 
family, for nearly all the younger members, who most of all need seats 
properly constructed. There should be chairs of different heights for 
different members of the family; and the importance of the matter is 
sufficient to justify the incurment of the expense necessary to secure 
each member of the family against injury from this cause. 

While we are by no means inclined to be ultra upon the subject, we 
must enter a word of protest against the too common use of rocking- 





























112 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE . 


chairs. As usually constructed they induce an improper attitude in the 
occupant, one which limits the action of the lungs and produces round¬ 
ness of the shoulders. AAA seldom sit in a rocking-chair for a half-hour 
without finding it necessary to get up and walk about, expanding the 
chest and filling the lungs to relieve the feeling of oppression which re¬ 
sults from the confinement of the chest. AAA have frequently observed 
in patients suffering with lung troubles a careful avoidance of rocking- 
chairs, and upon making inquiry have found that what we say is true. 
They avoided the rocking-chair because with their diminished lung ca¬ 
pacity they could not breathe well while sitting in it. 

AATiile the rocking-chair is undoubtedly a comfort to thousands, we 
have no doubt that on the whole it has been a curse to the race, es¬ 
pecially to womankind. AAA may have easy chairs, made as soft and 
luxurious as possible ; but let them be made in accordance with physio¬ 
logical principles. Art has made the models for chan's rather than nat¬ 
ure. If we would follow art less and nature more in numerous ways 
we should be vastly better off. 

Bad Positions in 
Standing. —See Figs. 66 
and 67. AVhile there 
need not be so much said 
on this subject as on the 
former, a few points de¬ 
serve attention. It should 
be remembered that the 
muscles are required to 
act while we are standing 
as well as when walking 
or making active move¬ 
ments. It requires a con¬ 
stant exercise of a large 
number of muscles, par¬ 
ticularly those of the 
trunk, 
erect, 

toppling over. Hence it 
is important, especially for those whose occupations require a standing 
position much of the time,—as clerks, accountants, bank cashiers, etc.,— 
that correct attitudes should be preserved, so that the muscles may 


to keep the body 
) prevent it from 


.r ig. d /. a correct 
position in standing. 




Fig. 66. Improper po¬ 
sition in standing, the 
shoulders being thrown 
forward. 









HOW TO WALK. 


113 


act properly. It is a very common practice with many to throw the 
weight wholly upon one foot, alternating with the two feet. When 
this is done, the spine is curved, and parts are thrown greatly out of 
their natural position. The weight may be easily alternated without 
so great changes; and when this is done, all the benefit which can 
be derived from any change of the sort is obtained. The rule should 
be to always preserve the body erect, the shoulders well thrown 
back, the chest well expanded, and the spine as straight as nature has 
made it. It is possible to go to an extreme even in this, but such 
a defect is so rare that we need not utter any warning against it. 

How to Walk. —It may seem at first ridiculous to pretend to 
teach grown people how to walk, as though they had not learned this 
in infancy. But we are willing to venture the assertion that not one 
person in twenty knows how to walk well. How few people are 
there who do not feel slightly embarrassed when obliged to walk 
across a large room in which are many persons seated so as to observe 
well each movement! How many public speakers there are who ap¬ 
pear well upon the platform so long as they remain standing still, or 
nearly so, but who become almost ridiculous as soon as they attempt 
to walk about. Good walkers are scarce. As we step along the 
street, we are often looking out for good walkers, and we find them 
very seldom. What is good walking? We answer, Easy, graceful, 
natural walking. Nearly all the good walkers there are, will be 
found among gentlemen, since fashion insists on so trammeling a 
woman that she cannot possibly walk well, can scarcely make a nat¬ 
ural movement, in fa>ct. To walk naturally, requires the harmonious 
action of nearly every muscle in the body. A good walker walks all 
over; not with a universal swing and swagger, as though each bone 
was a pendulum with its own separate hanging, but easily, gracefully. 
Not only the muscles of the lower limbs, but those of the trunk, even 
of the neck, as well as those of the arms, are all called into action in 
natural walking. A person who keeps his trunk and upper extrem¬ 
ities rigid while walking, gives one the impression of an automaton 
with pedal extremities set on hinges. Nothing could be more un¬ 
graceful than the mincing, wriggling gait which the majority of 
young ladies exhibit in their walk. They are scarcely to be held re¬ 
sponsible, however, since fashion requires them to dress themselves in 
such a way as to make it impossible to walk otherwise than awk¬ 
wardly and unnaturally. 

8 


114 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


We cannot attempt to describe the numerous varieties of unnat¬ 
ural gaits, and will leave the subject with a few suggestions about 
correct walking. 

1. Hold the head erect, with the shoulders well drawn back and 
the chin drawn in. Nothing looks more awkward and disagreeable 
than a person walking with the head thrown back and the nose and 
chin elevated. 

2. Step lightly, with elasticity—not with a teetering gait—setting 
the foot down squarely upon the walk and raising it sufficiently high 
to clear the walk in swinging it forward. A shuffling gait denotes a 
shiftless character. But do not go to the other extreme, stepping 
along like a horse with “ string halt.” A person with a firm, light, 
elastic gait, will walk much farther without weariness than one who 
shuffles along. A kind of measured tread or rhythm in the walk also 
seems to add to the power of endurance, though, for persons who have 
long distances to travel, an occasional change in the time will be ad¬ 
vantageous. 

3. In walking, do not attempt to keep any part of the body rigid, 
but leave all free to adapt themselves to the varying circumstances 
which a constant change of position occasions. The arms naturally 
swing gently, but not violently. The object of this is to maintain the 
balance of the body, as also by the gentle swinging motion to aid in 
propelling the body along. 

Correct walking should be cultivated. It ought to be taught along 
with the arts and sciences. In our military schools it is taught; but 
these schools can be attended by but few. Invalids especially should 
take great pains to learn to walk well, as by so doing they will gain 
more than double the amount of benefit they will otherwise derive from 
the exercise. 

Relation of Food to the Muscles.— While this is not the proper 
place for a complete account of the subject of food as related to the 
muscles, we may well notice a few points. Experiments show very 
clearly that the muscles are wasted by work and exercise of all kinds 
requiring muscular effort. Equally careful and reliable experiments 
have determined the fact that the muscles need for their support, cer¬ 
tain elements of food more than others ; these are the nitrogenous ele¬ 
ments. The muscles are themselves nitrogenous substance, and hence 
they require elements of the same character. It is as impossible to 
nourish the muscles or supply them with.force from starch, sugar, or 


RELATION OF FOOD TO THE MUSCLES. 


115 


fat, as it would be to make a brick house out of wood or straw. They 
need gluten, albumen, fibrine, caseine, and similar nitrogenous elements. 
It is not necessary to eat animal food to obtain these elements, though 
they are contained in greatest abundance in animal tissues. Vegetable 
food, such as oatmeal, peas, beans, and the unbolted meal of all the 
grains, contains a large proportion of this class of food elements. It is 
observed, in fact, that in the meal of wheat we have exactly the right 
proportion of all the food elements necessary to nourish the body and 
maintain it in health. This fact is also established by the dietetic cus¬ 
toms of various nations who use little or no animal food with the ex¬ 
ception of milk, and that in moderate quantities. Thousands of per¬ 
sons have been muscle-starved from the attempt to live upon fine- 
flour bread, which contains very little more than starch, and has been 
proven by experiment to be incapable of supporting the life of a dog. 

The athletes of ancient Greece and Romo were not reared on fine- 
flour bread; and it is equally worthy of notice that prize-fighters, 
wrestlers, and all persons in training for feats requiring the highest 
physical development, avoid fine-flour bread, and make graham bread, 
oatmeal, cracked wheat, and such food, a large proportion of their 
diet. Thus fully does experience corroborate the conclusions of 
theory in this matter. 


116 


ANATOMY , PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 


ANATOMY OF THE BRAIN AND NERVES. 

The structure of the nervous system is the most complex and deli¬ 
cate of any part of the body. Many portions of it, indeed, are not yet 
perfectly well known, although many physiologists have devoted their 

whole lives to careful study of this 
part of the human organism. We 
shall not attempt to give any except 
the most thoroughly established facts, 
devoting little space to the considera¬ 
tion of complicated and disputed ques¬ 
tions connected with the subject. 

Structure of Nerve Tissue.— 

The microscopical characters of nerve 
tissue we have already considered. 
We found that there are two distinct 
elements in nerve tissue, cells and fi¬ 
bres. The essential element of both 
of these we found to be the same, the 
central part of the fibre being but a 
continuation of the cells, both being 
composed of the great basis of all forms 
of living matter, protoplasm. 

These two elements of the nervous 
system are differently distributed in 
the body. 'The cells are collected in 
groups in the central parts of the body, 
which are termed ganglia while the 

Fig 1 . 6S. A general view of the nerv- . . ,, 

ous system. nerve nbres, associated in bundles, 

ramify to every part of the body. So 
completely is the whole body permeated by these delicate filaments 
occupied in transmitting sensations and volitions, that if all the other 
tissues were removed, the nerves would still present an exact outline 
of the body 







DIVISIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 


117 


Divisions of tlie Nervous System,— Considered from the stand¬ 
point of function, the nervous system is divided into two classes, each 
of which has a distinct work to perform; viz., the cerebrospinal sys¬ 


tem, and the organic or sympathetic system. The 
first mentioned is that with which we have most 
to deal, because this is the one which chiefly dis¬ 
tinguishes man and animals from vegetables, and 
the higher functions of which distinguish man from 
lower orders of animals. The second class or sys¬ 
tem of nerves presides over the nutritive functions 
of the body, the processes of growth and repair, ex¬ 
cretion, secretion, etc., which are sometimes termed 
the vegetative functions because of their close anal- 
ogy to similar functions in vegetables, although in 
the latter class of existences there is nothing analo- 
Fig-. 69. The Brain gous to a nervous system. 

and Spinal cord. Description of tlie Cerebro-Spiual System.— 
The cerebro-spinal system is made up of ganglia and nerve trunks* 
The ganglia, or groups of cells, are chiefly to be found in the skull 
and spinal canal, constituting the brain and spinal cord, the central 
axis of this system, the nerve trunks emanating from these two great 
centers and extending to all parts of the body. See Fig. G9. 



Fig. 70. a view of the upper surface of 
the brain, exposed by turning- back the scalp 
and removing a portion of the cranium. 









118 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 



Tig:. 71. A view of the under surface of the 
brain, showing the origins of the several pairs of 
nerves. 


Structure of the Brain .— 
See Figs. 70-73. The brain is 
the largest mass of nervous 
matter in the body, filling the 
entire cranial cavity. I ts 
weight is about forty-nine and 
one-half ounces in males, and 
forty-four ounces in females. 
It is inclosed by two mem¬ 
branes, the outer of which is 
closely applied to the inner 
plate of the skull, and from 
its toughness called the dura 
mater. This membrane 
abounds in blood-vessels, from 
which nourishment is supplied 
to both the brain and the skull, 
and by means of which the 
blood-supply of the interior 
and exterior of the cranium is in communication. Next the brain is 
another delicate membrane chiefly made up of blood-vessels which run 
down into the substance of the brain. Between this membrane and 
the dura mater is still another membrane so delicate in its structure 
that it has received a 
name which describes 
it as being like a spi¬ 
der’s web. 

The membranes of 
the brain divide it in¬ 
to a larger and a 
smaller portion. The 
larger portion, located 
in the upper and front 
part of the skull, is 
called the cerebrum \ 
the smaller portion, 
located in the back 
and lower part of the 
skull, is called the 



Pig. 72. The left half of the brain, showing the convolutions 
of the cerebrum, one lateral ventricle, the arbor vitce of the cere¬ 
bellum, etc. 










THE CEREBROSPINAL SYSTEM. 


119 


cerebellum , or little brain. Each of 
these principal portions of the brain 
is subdivided by a fold of the mem¬ 
branous coverings into two lateral 


halves, each of which furnishes 
nerves to the opposite half of the 
body. 

When the membranes of the 
brain are removed, its surface is 
found to be marked by numerous 
and quite deep depressions, which 
are due to' the convolutions or fold¬ 
ings of its outer layers. The gray 
color of the mass is also noticeable. 

When cut, it is found that the gray 
substance extends but a little way 
into the mass of tissue, the central 
portion being white. Examination 
with a microscope shows that the 

gray substance is composed of nerve cells, while the white portion is 
made up of fibres, which are connected with the cells. 


Fig 1 . 73. A horizontal section of the brain 
through its middle portion, showing the rela¬ 
tion of the white matter to the gray, with 
many other points of interest. 




Fig. 74. A view of the Cranial Nerves, with their points of origin 
in the brain. 


At the base of 
the brain, or its 
under side and cen¬ 
tral portion, are 
found a number of 
collections of gray 
matter or nerve 
cells, called the 
central ganglia of 
the brain. 

At the lowest 
portion of the 
brain, just at its 
junction with the 
spinal cord at the 
foramen magnum, 
is a rounded body, 
known as the 









120 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


medulla oblongata, which may really be considered as the enlarged 
upper end of the spinal cord. 

In the central portion of the brain is found a curious little organ 
about as large as a pea, the pineal gland, which the great philosopher 
Descartes supposed to be the seat of the soul. It is now known to be 
simply a gland. 

From this exceedingly brief description it will be seen that the brain 
is really a collection of ganglia within the skull, and consists of sev¬ 
eral distinct groups of cells. Each group has its particular function 
to perform, its particular part of the work of the vital economy to 
control or direct. From each one go out nerve fibres which terminate 
in different ways, according to the functions to be performed. 

The Spinal Cord .—The spinal cord, or marrow, as it is sometimes 
called, is really a continuation of the brain down through the spinal 
canal. It extends through the whole length of the canal, and at its 
lower extremity spreads itself out like the tail of a horse, whence it 
is in this region called the cauda equina. The spinal cord is really a 
series of cell groups, or ganglia, ranged one above another, but so closely 
joined together as to make them practically inseparable. Like the 
brain, the cord is invested by membranes designed for its protection 
and nourishment. Like the brain, also, it is divided into two lateral 
halves, each half being further divided into anterior and posterior col¬ 
umns. All along its course the cord sends off’ branches, which have 
two roots, one of which arises from the anterior column, and the other 
from the side of the cord, branches being sent off symmetrically from 
both sides. 

The Gerebro-Spinal Nerves .—The nerve branches which are sent out 
by the brain and spinal cord number forty pairs in all, of which nine 
pairs originate in the brain, and thirty-one in the spinal cord. See 
Figs. 74 and 69. 

The thirty-one pairs of nerves which are derived from the spinal 
cord are distributed chiefly to the trunk and extremities, all parts of 
which they supply with nerves of sensation and of motion. The nine 
nerve branches from the brain, arising chiefly from the central gan¬ 
glia at its base and from the medulla oblongata , are distributed to the 
face, the organs of special sense located in the head, and the vital or¬ 
gans of the chest and abdomen. 

The manner in which nerves and nerve cells are connected is now 
pretty well understood, though it has been but recently that the exact 


THE SYMPATHETIC SYSTEM OF NERVES. 


121 



mode of connection has been determined. It will be recalled that 
nerve cells are provided with peculiar appendages, some possessing but 
one, others two, three, or even as many as a dozen or more. It ap¬ 
pears from careful investiga¬ 
tions that have been made 
of this subject that these 
poles or branches are for the 
purpose of connecting to¬ 
gether individual cells; and 
also, that nerve fibres are 
simply prolongations of these 
same appendages. By this 
means the minute cells of 
the brain and spinal cord 
are actually extended into 
the most remote portions of 
the body; and the millions 
of cells which make up the 
gray matter of the brain and 
cord are connected by the 
same means. 

Tlie Sympathetic or 
Organic System of Nerves. 

—Fig. 75. This system is 

made up of a series of small 

ganglia found in the head 

and on either side of the 

spinal column within the 

cavities of the trunk. The 

ganglia are all connected 

by small fibres, so that 

they are sometimes spoken 

of as being a single nerve, 

the great sympathetic. Their 

fibres follow the blood-ves- , Fi ^ 75 - A view of the Sympathetic or Organic 

Nervous System. 

sels in great numbers, start¬ 
ing with them as they go out from the heart. A large collection of 
the nerves of this system, found in the abdomen just back of the 
stomach, is known as the solar plexus • This system is closely con- 



122 


ANATOMY , PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


nected with the cerebro-spinal system of nerves by means of commu¬ 
nicating branches. 

General Properties of Nerves. —Nerves possess, during life, the 
power to do two things: to conduct nerve force, and to conduct im¬ 
pressions received from without. Both these properties are not pos¬ 
sessed by the same nerve fibres at the same time. For doing the two 
kinds of work there are two classes of nerves. They do not differ in 
the least in structure, but totally in function. One carries impressions 
into the brain and spinal cord; the other transmits nerve force in the 
form of impulses outward. As there are many varieties of impres¬ 
sions to be received, there are several kinds of nerves which have 
power to transmit impressions only of one certain kind. These are 
called nerves of special sense. This property of nerves is known as 
nervous irritability. Each nerve of special sense possesses only its 
own kind of irritability. For instance, the nerve of sight transmits 
impressions of sight, but not of hearing, smell, taste, or any other kind 
of impression. So with each of the others. The nerves which travel 
outward from the nerve centers end in the muscles,—where they are 
called motor nerves,—in membranes, glands, and in all parts requiring 
the aid or control of the nerves. 

PHYSIOLOGY OF THE BRAIN AND NERVES, 

The chief organ in the nervous system is the brain. This is the 
great center from which emanates the nerve force which vitalizes and 
energizes every part of the body. It is the seat of government in the 
vital domain, the nerves being its servants through which it receives 
information of the external world, and by means of which it is able to 
execute its mandates in all parts of its province, even extending be¬ 
yond itself and the limits of the body, and operating upon external 
things through the medium of its instruments. 

As before stated, the brain is made up of a series of ganglia, each 
of which has special duties to perform. We can only understand the 
functions of the brain as a whole by studying the functions of each 
of the separate groups of cells which compose it. This has been done 
with the greatest care, and very recently results have been obtained 
which throw great light on this hitherto most complex and mysteri¬ 
ous subject. So far as we know, these results have not yet been em¬ 
bodied in any treatise on the subject, being only to be found in sci- 


FUNCTIONS OF THE MEDULLA OBLONGATA. 


123 


entific periodicals. An eminent writer* in a leading English scien¬ 
tific magazine, the Nineteenth Century, has summarized these late re¬ 
sults so admirably and succinctly that we cannot do better than to 
quote a portion of his article, as follows:— 

“ The most important step in modern research, and which may be 
said to have ushered in a new period in our knowledge of brain func¬ 
tion, was the application of electricity to the hemispheres of the brain 
of living animals, and the observation of the effects caused by such 
stimulation. The first successful experiments of this kind were made 
by two German observers, Fritsche and Hitzig, of Berlin, who were 
soon followed by Ferrier in this country. A secure base was thus 
given to one of the most important doctrines of the present day, viz., 
the localization of the several cerebral faculties; and if vivisection had 
done nothing else for science, it would simply on account of this have 
a claim on our gratitude. But vivisection is only one of the means 
which have been employed toward the elucidation of our subject. 
The clinical features of the several diseases of the brain have been, 
and are now, more attentively than ever studied by hospital physi¬ 
cians ; the symptoms observed during life are compared with the re¬ 
sults of post-mortem examinations; and by simultaneously bringing 
anatomy, experimental physiology, clinical medicine, and pathology to 
bear upon this great question, the present doctrine of brain-function 
eventually became established. 

Functions of the Medulla Oblongata*— “ We may subdivide the 
brain into five principal parts, which greatly differ in general configu¬ 
ration, and which, although they are in the most intimate connection 
with each other, yet are invested with thoroughly different functions. 
They stand in the relation of higher and lower centers, the lowest be¬ 
ing the medulla, and the highest the gray surface of the hemispheres. 
The functions of these parts will now be considered seriatim , begin¬ 
ning with the lower centers. 

“ 1. The medulla forms the connecting link between the spinal 
cord and the brain. It is a small cord, about an inch long, and weigh¬ 
ing no more than two drachms; yet it must be looked upon as the 
most vital part of the whole system, for injury to it proves immedi¬ 
ately fatal. The most important function of the medulla is to cause 
and to regulate the respiratory movements, and the point in which 


*Dr. Julius Althaus. 


124 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


this respiratory center is situated is called the vital knot. Death by 
hanging results generally from injury to this special point in the me¬ 
dulla, through dislocation or fracture of the upper portion of the 
spine; the criminal therefore dies of asphyxia, or cessation of respira¬ 
tion. The entire brain above the medulla may be removed in an ani¬ 
mal, and the latter may yet continue to breathe; but destruction of 
the medulla asphyxiates it at once. The same organ also regulates 
the heart’s action. It is true that the pulsations of the heart are not, 
like the respiratory movements, at once arrested by destruction of the 
medulla, for they may continue for some time after death from hang¬ 
ing. Indeed, the rhythmic beating of the heart is effected by means of 
small nerve cells which are situated in its muscular substance, and 
which may retain their energy for some time after death. The influ¬ 
ence of the medulla upon the heart is therefore a secondary one, that 
is, to retard or accelerate its action. The medulla is never at rest as 
long as life lasts; for respiration and the heart’s action continue during 
sleep as well as in the waking condition in a typical manner. 

“ The medulla is likewise the center of action for the blood-vessels. 
These are not always equally distended by the circulating liquid, but 
may contract and dilate, as is seen in sudden blushing and pallor, un¬ 
der the influence of diverse mental emotions. The insensible perspira¬ 
tion of the skin, which, like respiration, is also going on constantly, is 
likewise imder the influence of the medulla. 

“ A pointed illustration of these facts is given by the symptoms of 
the peculiar disorder known as sun-stroke. This affection occurs more 
particularly in the tropics, but is occasionally observed in hot weather 
in the temperate zone, in persons who are exposed to the direct rays 
of the sun, and who have at the same time to undergo exertion. It is 
therefore chiefly seen in soldiers marching during the heat of the day, 
or in agricultural laborers who are at work in the fields; yet it has 
been known to come on at night, in persons sleeping in the pestilential 
atmosphere of overcrowded and badly ventilated barracks or cabins, 
and in children shut up in a stifling bedroom after having been ex¬ 
posed to great heat during the day. It would therefore be more ap¬ 
propriate to speak of heat-stroke, for the disorder really consists of a 
great and sudden rise in the temperature of the blood, which in this 
state acts as a poison on the medulla. The perspiration of the skin is 
suddenly arrested, and as the evaporation of sweat on the surface of 
the body is intended to produce cold, and thus to neutralize the effects 


FUNCTIONS OF THE MEDULLA OBLONGATA. 


125 


of the external heat, the closure of this safety-valve causes a further 
rise of temperature, which paralyzes some or most of the centers in 
the medulla. The worst kind of heat-stroke is that in which the cen¬ 
ters for respiration and the heart’s action are affected, as fatal asphyxia 
or syncope is the result. A person who may be walking in the street 
or working in a field is seen suddenly to drop down as if shot or 
struck by lightning, and dies in a minute or two. A fatal issue is in 
such cases so rapid that there is no chance for any treatment to do 
good, more especially as the means which would be of the first im¬ 
portance, viz., ice and plenty of cold water, are usually not at once at 
hand. 

“ The second kind of sun-stroke is owing to paralysis of the center 
for the blood-vessels in the medulla, whereby apoplexy is caused. In 
such instances the symptoms are not quite so sudden, and death may 
often be averted. The illness begins with mental disturbance—there 
are delusions and hallucinations, followed by mania, and the patient 
may commit suicide or homicide. This stage of excitement lasts for a 
short time, and is succeeded by a period of depression. The patient 
becomes sleepy, insensible, and may die in a state of profound apo¬ 
plexy. Life is, however, often saved by drenching the body with cold 
water, and applying ice to the head. The overheated blood is thereby 
cooled, and the medulla roused from its torpid condition. 

The movements of swallowing, which require for their proper ex¬ 
ecution a co-ordinated action of the lips, tongue, palate, and gullet, are 
likewise under the immediate influence of the medulla. The same or¬ 
gan contains a center for the physiognomical play of the muscles of 
the face, and another for articulate speech, that is, the pronunciation 
of vowels and consonants in such fashion as to form words. These 
facts are well illustrated by the symptoms of a peculiar disease which, 
although it has no doubt always existed, has only recently attracted 
the attention of the medical woi^d, and which consists in a wasting 
away of those nerve cells in the medulla which preside over the func¬ 
tions just mentioned. This affection, which has received the eupho¬ 
nious name of ‘ labio-glosso-pharyngeal paralysis,’ commences with ap¬ 
parently insignificant symptoms. It is found that speaking, eating, 
and swallowing require an effort. The tongue feels heavy; the lips 
do not move properly; the patient experiences difficulty in pronounc¬ 
ing certain letters, such as b, p, o, and u ; he cannot whistle or blow 
owt a candle. As time goes on, the tongue becomes more powerless ; 


120 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


more letters of the alphabet are lost; the soft palate does not act 
properly, and the voice acquires a nasal twang. The vocal cords be¬ 
come paralyzed, the voice is completely lost, and the patient is only 
able to grunt. He cannot blow his nose, clear his throat, cough, or 
swallow. In attempting to eat, the tongue fails to form a proper 
morsel of the food taken, and to push it on to the gullet. The food 
remains, therefore, between the teeth and the cheeks, and can only be 
pushed farther on to the throat by the aid of the fingers. It is apt to 
get into the windpipe and cause choking. On attempting to drink, 
the liquid returns through the nose. The unfortunate sufferer thus 
dies a slow death from starvation, the torments of which can only in¬ 
adequately be relieved by medical aid. On making a post-mortem 
examination, wasting of certain nerve cells in the medulla is discov¬ 
ered to be the cause of this terrible malady. 

“ All these different functions of the medulla which we have con¬ 
sidered are automatic or mechanical, that is, independent of volition, 
intelligence, or any other of the higher mental processes; and they 
may therefore continue where the higher centers in the brain have 
been either experimentally removed, or disorganized by disease.” 

Functions of the Pons and Optic Lobes. —“ 2. The next great 
division of the brain which we have to consider consists of the pons, or 
bridge, and optic lobes, and is the center for still more complicated ac¬ 
tions than those over which the medulla presides. The functions of 
these parts have been chiefly made known by experiments on living 
animals. A pigeon which is left in possession of these parts, but from 
which the higher portions of the brain have been removed, is still able 
to respond to a stimulus, but, if left alone, will show complete indiffer¬ 
ence and loss of initiative. There is no desire, no impulse to any spon¬ 
taneous action, and apparently no recollection of any former events. 
Such an animal will remain, day by day, sitting quietly on its feet, with¬ 
out giving any signs of life, and, unless artificially fed, will ultimately 
die of starvation, without feeling the pangs of hunger and without suf¬ 
fering in any way. As soon, however, as its repose is disturbed, it will 
give signs of life. If laid on the back, it will struggle until it has re¬ 
gained its previous position on the feet. If pinched, it will walk 
away. If thrown into the air, it will flap its wings, and come down 
to the ground in the ordinary manner. If a light be held to the eyes, 
the pupils will contract. If ammonia be applied near the nostrils, the 
animal will draw back with signs of disgust. If a shot be fired close 


FUNCTIONS OF THE PONS AND OPTIC LOBES. 


127 


to it, it will jump up and open its eyes; and if food be put into its 
mouth, it will swallow it. 

“ In frogs and fishes the phenomena are almost identical with those 
observed in pigeons, being only slightly modified by the different me¬ 
dia in which the animals live. In the fish, for instance, the contact 
with the water acts as a constant external stimulus on the mechanism 
of swimming. A fish from which the higher portions of the brain 
have been removed, will therefore not sit still, like the pigeon, 
but will go on swimming until it reaches an impediment to its pas¬ 
sage. It follows a headlong and apparently irresistible impulse, yet 
will show some method, inasmuch as it will avoid obstacles, and turn 
aside when prevented from going straight on. While a fish in its nor¬ 
mal condition will, as may daily be seen in an aquarium, stop on its 
way, sniff about, pursue a prey, etc., the unbrained fish sails heed¬ 
lessly along, without ever stopping or taking nourishment, until it 
dies of exhaustion. In a similar manner an unbrained fro^, when 
thrown into the water, will move on until it reaches terra firma, but, 
as soon as it has found a resting-place, will remain in the same state 
of death-like repose as the pigeon. 

“ In the mammalia the results differ somewhat from those obtained 
in the lower animals. In them the different portions of the brain are 
so intimately connected, and so dependent upon one another, that re¬ 
moval of the higher parts appears to disorder the entire mechanism, 
and causes such a degree of exhaustion as to interfere greatly with the 
independent action of the lower centers. Nevertheless, the functions 
of these latter are identical with those of the same parts in the lower 
animals, which we conclude from their homologous structure, and also 
from observations made in disease of these centers. 

“ The expression of the affections, such as fear, terror, pleasure, 
pain, etc., is likewise under the influence of the second division of the 
brain. Frogs, in which the higher portions of the brain have been 
destroyed or removed, will still croak when stroked across the back; 
and croaking in the frog is the expression of satisfaction and comfort. 
In ourselves, laughing and crying, and othe'r expressions of the affec¬ 
tions, are generally quite involuntary, and independent of reflection. 
It is true, that we may, by an effort of the will, restrain or inhibit 
such expressions; but this is done by a special exertion of the inhib¬ 
itory influence of the higher centers, which can only come into play 
after a long course of training, and which is quite absent in children 
and uneducated persons.” 


128 


ANATOMY , PHYSIOLOGY , .4¥ 7 D HYGIENE. 


Functions of the Cerebellum. —“3. The cerebellum, or little 
brain, which is intimately connected with the preceding and following 
divisions, was formerly believed to be the seat of the reproductive 
faculty and desire; but this view has recently been shown to be in¬ 
correct. Nor has the cerebellum anything to do with reason, volition, 
or consciousness; for animals which are deprived of the higher cen¬ 
ters, yet left in possession of the cerebellum, do not show any spon¬ 
taneity of desire or action, and will, for instance, die of starvation 
with the utmost indifference. If, however, the cerebellum be re¬ 
moved, the animal will move about as if it were drunk. It is not 
paralyzed, and will endeavor to carry out certain movements, but 
there is an utter want of precision; and even the most desperate ef¬ 
forts do not succeed in steadying the body. The cerebellum is thus 
shown to be the organ of equilibration of the body; and this conclu¬ 
sion from physiological experiments has been corroborated by observa¬ 
tions of disease of the organ in man. It is likewise known that the 
different portions of the cerebellum have different parts allotted to 
them in this respect. One part prevents us from falling forward, an¬ 
other from falling sideways and from constantly turning round in a 
circle, while a third is intended to secure us from falling backward.” 

Functions of the Central Ganglia.— “4. The central ganglia, 
which constitute the fourth great division of the brain, have the func¬ 
tion to render certain complex movements which are intimately con¬ 
nected with sensations, and which are, in the first instance, only ex¬ 
cited by volition and consciousness, gradually, as it were, mechanical 
and automatic. The object of this contrivance is to save time and 
trouble to the highest portion of the brain, viz., the gray surface of 
the hemispheres. It is intended that these latter should only be oc¬ 
cupied with the most important manifestations of life. The central 
ganglia may therefore be said to be the confidential servants or pri¬ 
vate secretaries of the hemispheres, and undertake a good deal of 
drudgery, in order to leave the gray surface at liberty for the finer 
and more difficult inds of the work which falls to our lot in life. 
Thus we have, in dhfidhood and youth, to learn the actions of walk¬ 
ing, talking, writing, dressing, dancing, riding on horseback, decent 
eating and drinking, singing, playing of musical instruments, etc., by 
countless conscious efforts on the part of the hemispheres; and full 
attention is necessary in the beginning in order to enable us to carry 
out such movements in a proper manner. But the older we grow, the 


FUNCTIONS OF TIIF CENTRAL GANGLIA. 


129 


more frequently we have directed our minds to all these forms of ac¬ 
tivity, the less effort will eventually he necessary on the part of con¬ 
sciousness and volition; and ultimately all such movements will he 
performed mechanically, and without much, if any, attention to them 
on the part of the gray surface of the brain. A man who is in the 
habit of writing much never thinks of the way in which he forms his 
letters on the paper, over which his pen seems to fly quite mechanic- 
allv. The same holds good for the various kinds of needlework, em- 
broidery, playing on the piano, the violin, etc. If, each time we do any¬ 
thing of that sort, a conscious effort were necessary for all the differ¬ 
ent parts of which the action is composed, the time at our disposal 
would not suffice for the hundredth part of the work which we actu¬ 
ally get through in life; and some forms of activity, such as finished 
piano and violin playing, would be utterly impossible. 

“ A key is thus furnished for the comprehension of many singu¬ 
lar occurrences which would otherwise be quite inexplicable. A pian¬ 
ist, for instance, finds himself playing one of Rubinsteins sonatas by 
heart, and is perhaps thinking all the time of his coming trip to Switz¬ 
erland, or something else which may happen to engage his attention; 
that is, the central ganglia play the sonata, while the hemispheres 
are busy elsewhere. A very worthy country parson told me some 
time ago that, when he reads prayers at church, he does so quite as 
an automaton, for his mind keeps wandering in a totally different 
direction. A man who knows London well may walk from his house 
through a maze of streets with the greatest precision to his club, 
where he arrives without having given the slightest attention either 
to the act of walking or to the direction he took, but having been 
quite in another world of thoughts all the time he was on his way. 

“ Somnambulism and other automatic conditions, which are observed 
in certain states of derangement of the nervous system, may be similarly 
explained. The lower centers are habitually under the absolute control 
of the highest, that is, the hemispheres ; yet this balance of power may 
be temporarily disturbed by illness or exhaustion of the gray surface, 
and the central ganglia may then begin to act in their own fashion. 
What may take place under such circumstances may be aptly compared 
to certain occurrences which are not uncommon when the family is out 
of town, and the servants are left in charge of the house. Supposing 
the hemispheres to have lost their control over the lower centers, elabo¬ 
rate actions may take place which may have all the appearance of delib- 

9 


130 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE . 


erate intention, and yet for which the person who commits them can no 
more be held responsible than the absent master of the house for the mis¬ 
doings of his servants. The somnambulist who falls from the roof of a 
house and is killed is no more a suicide than a man who in the state of 
epileptic vertigo commits robbery, arson, or murder, can be called a truly 
responsible criminal. The legal mind has not yet been able to grasp the 
full significance of these facts, as shown by convictions to penal servitude 
of persons who should have been sent to hospitals or asylums.” 

Functions of tlie Cerebrum. —“5. The highest development of 

brain-matter is found in the hemispheres, convolutions, or gray surface 
of the brain, which is the material base of all mental and moral activity. 
This portion of the brain * * * * * is not 

a single organ, as was formerly supposed, but consists of a number 
of thoroughly differentiated organs, each one of which possesses certain 
functions, yet is in the closest possible connection with all the others. 
To define all these various organs with accuracy, to determine their inti¬ 
mate structure as well as their individual energy, and to trace the phys¬ 
iological and pathological alterations which they undergo during the 
natural processes of development, maturity, and decay, and in diseases 
to which they are subject, is the greatest problem for the anatomy and 
physiology of the twentieth century ; and when this problem is solved, 
a complete revolution in psychology must be the result. At present, 
however, we are only on the threshold of this inquiry, which is perhaps 
the most difficult and complicated of any which may present themselves 
to the human mind. 

“ I cannot attempt, in the limits of the present paper, to enter at all 
fully into the labyrinth of these convolutions, but must be satisfied with 
a rapid survey of what is best known with regard to the functions of 
some of them. One of the most suefsfestive results of recent researches 
has been to show that the faculty of intelligent language, as distinguished 
from simply articulate speech, is situated in that portion of the hemi¬ 
spheres which is called the third left frontal convolution, and its imme¬ 
diate neighborhood. We have already seen that the pronunciation of 
letters and words is effected in the lowest portion of the brain, viz., the 
medulla ; but this and all the other inferior organs concerned in speak¬ 
ing form only as it were the instrument, on which that small portion of 
the brain’s surface which I have just named is habitually playing. 
Lower centers are able to hear spoken words, and to see written words ; 
but the intelligent appreciation of the connection which exists between 


FUNCTIONS OF THE CEREBRUM. 


131 


words and ideas, and the faculty of expressing thoughts in sentences— 
that is, what the Greeks called logos —only resides in the third left 
frontal convolution. This discovery was foreshadowed by Gall, but 
actually made by Broco, who likewise found that the left hemisphere is 
altogether more important for intellectual manifestations than the right, 
and is chiefly trained for talking as well as most of the finer kinds of 
work which we have to perform in daily life. This appears to be owing 
to the following circumstances : The left hemisphere is originally heavier 
than the right; the convolutions are more abundantly developed in the 
left; and finally, the left is more abundantly provided with blood, on 
account of the larger caliber of the blood-vessels which supply it. Most 
people therefore train chiefly the left hemisphere for talking, writing, 
etc.; they are left-brained as they are right-handed. A preponderance 
of the right over the left hemisphere, on the other hand, seems, accord¬ 
ing to the most recent researches, to be characteristic of certain forms of 
insanity. 

“ Physiological experiments on animals point to the convolution I 
have j ust named as being concerned in language; for when electricity 
is applied to the part in the living monkey or rabbit, the animal opens 
its mouth, and alternately protrudes and retracts the tongue. But far 
more convincing proofs have been furnished by numerous cases of dis¬ 
ease in which there was loss of language during life, and where after 
death a lesion limited to the part just named was discovered. 

“ A boy, aged five, who was a great chatterbox, fell out of the win¬ 
dow and injured the left frontal bone, which was found depressed. 
There was no paralysis, but the boy had entirely lost his language. The 
wound healed in twenty-five days ; but the child, although intelligent, 
remained dumb. A year afterward he was accidentally drowned, and 
at the autopsy it was found that the third left frontal convolution had 
been destroyed by the inj ury he had received. 

“ A man fell with his horse, but got up, took hold of the reins, and 
was going to jump into the saddle, when a doctor who happened to ac¬ 
company him expressed the wish to make an examination. It was then 
found that he could not speak, but had to make himself understood by 
pantomime. A small wound in the left side of the forehead v as found, 
with depression of bone ; but there was no paralysis. Inflammation set 
in, the patient died, and at the post-mortem examination it was found 
that a fragment of bone had penetrated into the third left frontal con¬ 
volution, which had become softened. 



132 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


‘‘Talking, writing, drawing, etc., are habitually done by the left 
hemisphere alone, while both hemispheres have to be trained for musical 
performances. Pianists educate them both equally, while violinists and 
violoncello-players have to train them dissimilarly; and this is probably 
the reason why it requires more practice, and is more difficult, to play 
well on string-instruments than on the piano. 

“ A man who has by disease or injury lost the faculty of talking, is 
generally also unable to write; and it is only in exceptional cases that 
one of these functions persists while the other is in abeyance. Cases of 
this latter kind show, however, that there are really two separate centers 
for the two faculties which are lying very close together, and there¬ 
fore generally suffer at the same time. If the disease affecting them be 
still more extensive, the faculty of intelligent pantomime or gesticulation 
is likewise abolished. Persons who have entirely lost their language 
may still be able to play chess, backgammon, and whist; and they have 
been observed to cheat at cards with some ingenuity; they may also 
be sharp in business matters,—facts tending to show that speech and 
intellect do not run in identical grooves. 

“ Those portions of the hemispheres which correspond to the pareital 
region or crown of the head, and which are called the jpareital lobes, 
constitute the true motor region of the brain’s surface, and, being in in¬ 
timate connection with another portion which is the material base of the 
intellect and mind, have been called psycho-motor centers, in order to 
distinguish them from the lower motor centers in the medulla, the cen¬ 
tral ganglia, etc. The special functions of these psycho-motor centers 
have been studied by the application of electricity, by destroying them 
in the living animal, and also by observation of certain symptoms at the 
bedside; and it has been shown that each one singly serves some defi¬ 
nite purpose, as, for instance, clenching the fist, swimming, grasping 
something, raising the hand to the mouth, etc. Destruction of these 
centers causes paralysis of such movements, while irritation of them 
leads to a peculiar form of epilepsy, in which the convulsions affect only 1 
one (the opposite) side of the body, and where there is generally no 
loss of consciousness. 

“ The next great division of the brain’s surface is that which cor¬ 
responds to the temporal region of the skull. These temporal lobes 
of the hemispheres are intended to act as centers for sensory percep¬ 
tions. This is likewise shown by galvanizing them in the living ani¬ 
mal, and by localized destruction of the same. One portion of the 


FUNCTIONS OF THE CEREBRUM. 


133 


temporal lobe is the center of the sense of hearing. If it be de¬ 
stroyed, deafness on the opposite side is the result; on the other hand, 
if it be electrified, the animal is seen to prick up its ears and to as¬ 
sume the attitude of listening, just as it does when a sudden noise is 
made close to its ear. In those animals whose habits of life render 
their safety dependent upon the keenness of their sense of hearing, 
as, for instance, the wild rabbit and the jackal, galvanization of that 
part causes not only pricking of ears and listening, but also a quick 
jump to the side, as if to escape from some danger which would be 
announced by a loud or unusual noise. 

“ The center for the sense of smell is situated close by. If it be 
electrified, the animal begins to sniff, as if it smelt something strong, 
just as it does when odoriferous substances are placed to its nose. De¬ 
struction of this center causes loss of smell. It is particularly devel¬ 
oped in animals which are endowed with a keen sense of smell, such 
as dogs, cats, and rabbits. A center for the perception of taste is in its 
immediate neighborhood. Other portions of the temporal lobes are 
intended for the sense of touch, and there is also a visual center, de¬ 
struction of which causes blindness of the opposite side. All these 
centers are symmetrically arranged on both sides, the left in the brain 
serving for the right side of the body, and vice versa. 

“ A third portion of the hemispheres which we have to consider are 
the posterior or occipital lobes, which correspond to the back of the 
head. Their structure differs greatly from that of the parts more in 
front, and they receive their blood supply from quite a different set 
of blood-vessels. Electricity has apparently no influence upon them, 
and destruction of their substance causes neither paralysis nor loss of 
sensation. Animals from which these lobes have been removed con¬ 
tinue to see, hear, touch, taste, smell, and move about just as usual. 
They generally, however, refuse to eat, and succumb rapidly. We 
are inclined to look upon these lobes as specially connected with the 
digestive tract, more especially the stomach and liver, and also with 
the reproductive organs; yet the symptoms of disease of these lobes 
are contradictory and perplexing, and our knowledge concerning them 
is as yet in its infancy. 

“ The last and most important portion of the hemispheres consists 
of the anterior or frontal lobes, which correspond to the forehead. 
They are the actual seat of the intellect. Injury or disease of these 
lobes does not cause any impairment of motion or sensation; and large 


134 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


portions of brain-matter have occasionally been lost through wounds 
in these parts without any very sHiking*symptoms, such as paralysis, 
etc., following, more especially if the lesion was confined to one side. 
Patients have now and then recovered from the most fearful injuries 
to the anterior lobes, and yet been able to go about and to attend to 
the ordinary routine of certain occupations; but it has always been 
shown, on close examination, that there had been a profound change 
in the character and behavior of such persons, and that their temper 
and their mental and moral faculties had become deteriorated. In 
a very marked case of this kind, which occurred some years ago in 
a previously steady and clever workman, there was, after recovery 
from the injury, such a change in the mind of the man that his em¬ 
ployers had to discharge him. The balance between his intellect¬ 
ual faculties and his animal propensities had evidently been de¬ 
stroyed. He had become capricious and vacillating, fitful, impatient, 
obstinate, and, as far as intellectual capacity was concerned, appeared 
to be a child, which, however, had the animal passions of a strong 
man. In consonance with such cases is Ferrier’s experience with 
monkeys in whom he had destroyed these lobes. The animals did not 
appear to have lost the power of motion or sensation, but there was 
an alteration in their character. While previously to the operation 
they were actively interested in their surroundings, and pried into 
everything which came within their sphere, they had after it become 
dull and apathetic, readily dozed off to sleep, or wandered to and fro 
in a listless manner; so that it was evident that they had lost the 
faculty of attentive and intelligent observation. 

“ The anterior lobes have therefore to be looked upon as the or¬ 
ganic base of the highest intellectual and moral faculties. The prin¬ 
cipal part of the work done in life consists of certain movements or 
actions, which are the more or less immediate consequence of sensa¬ 
tions and desires which we experience; but apart from the power of 
performing such actions, we possess the faculty of restraining or in¬ 
hibiting them in spite of being urged to their performance by sensa¬ 
tions or desires. This inhibitory action is again most intimately con¬ 
nected with the power of concentrating attention, without which none 
of the higher intellectual operations are possible. The anterior lobes 
are therefore inhibitory centers, intended for the highest kind of 
mental work and moral control. They are small in idiots and the 
lower animals, larger in monkeys, largest in man; and their pecul- 


FUNCTIONS OF THE SPINAL COED. 


135 


iarly large and abundant development is found to coincide with the 
highest development of intellectual power. 

“ It is probable that a special evolution of certain parts* of these 
lobes will be found to coincide with the presence of certain special apt¬ 
itudes and talents in individuals; but of this nothing definite is 
known, and there is in this direction an immense field still open for 
patient and intelligent inquiry.” 

The Functions of the Spinal Cord. —The spinal cord contains 
both gray and white matter, the gray matter consisting of nerve-cells 
and the white matter of nerve fibres. The function of the nerve- 
cells seems to be to have charge of certain automatic movements which 
are performed independent of the will, or involuntarily. These move¬ 
ments are generally termed reflex, since they are supposed to originate 
in external impressions which cause an impulse - to be carried to the 
spinal cord by a sensory nerve, the impulse being reflected to the 
muscles by a motor nerve. This is well seen in a frog which has been 
decapitated. If a little sulphuric or acetic acid be applied to the inner 
portion of the thigh of a frog which has just been deprived of its 
head, it will immediately put up the other foot to remove the irritat¬ 
ing substance. If the acid is applied to the belly instead, both feet 
will be raised, and vigorous movements will be made to remove it. If 
placed upon its feet, such a frog will remain perfectly quiet if wholly 
undisturbed; but so soon as any sort of irritation is applied, as tick¬ 
ling with a stick, pricking, or even jarring of the object on which it 
rests, it will leap forward as though alive. These movements are 
said to be reflex because they are supposed to originate in the manner 
described, from the gray matter of the cord. There are eminent phys¬ 
iologists who maintain that experiments of this kind prove that the 
cord as well as the brain is the seat of mind, even going so far as to 
assert that mind exists wherever gray matter is found, being a prop¬ 
erty of nerve-cells. 

The spinal cord also acts as a conductor of sensations to the brain, 
and of volitions from it. The nerves of general sensibility convey to the 
spinal cord impressions received in various parts of the body, when they 
are carried up to the brain by means of the gray matter of the cord. 
The brain then wills the performance of an act, and the force necessary 
to excite the muscles to contract is sent down the spinal cord and thence 
out through some of its nerve branches to the part from whence the 
impression came. For instance, if a pin is thrust into the finger, the sen- 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


13G 

sation which we call pain is transmitted by means of a sensory nerve to 
the cord, which passes it up to the brain, where the sensation is really 
felt, the brain itself being not sensitive, since it may be cut and torn 
without pain, though it appreciates injuries done to other parts of the 
body. The cord is thus seen to be both a conductor of nerve force and 
a nerve center or force generator. 

The reflex action of the cord is often seen in human beings in cases 
of paralysis in which there is loss of power to control the lower extrem¬ 
ities. We have frequently met with such patients, in whom the limbs 
could be made to twitch with considerable force by titillation of the soles 
of the feet, though the muscles would not act in obedience to the will on 
account of some injury in the nerve centers having charge of that part 
of the body or in the nervous communication between the two. 

Functions of the Spinal Nerves. —The thirtv-one pairs of nerves 
which originate in the spinal cord are each double. This might be easily 
surmised from the fact already stated, that each nerve has two roots, 
one of which arises from the posterior portion of the cord, the other from 
the anterior portion. It has been found, by experiments upon animals, 
that the fibres which come from these two roots differ from each other 
in function, the anterior roots being nerves of motion, and conveying 
nerve force from the cord to the muscles, and those which are connected 
with the posterior root conveying impressions from various portions of 
the body to the cord. Hence the anterior root and fibres arising from 
it are termed motor, the posterior root and its fibres being called sensory. 

A curious fact discovered by physiologists is that both the motor 
and sensory fibres, which, as we have seen, communicate with the brain 
through the cord, cross over to the opposite side from that on which 
they enter the cord before passing into the brain. The sensory fibres 
pass over or decussate soon after entering the cord, while the motor fila¬ 
ments cross over in the medulla oblongata, or at the base of the brain. 
The consequence of this is that if an injury happens to these nerve fibres 
in the brain or the cells in which they terminate or originate, the injury 
will be manifested upon the opposite side of the body. Thus, paralysis of 
one side of the body may be taken as evidence that the opposite side of 
the brain has been injured. 

Functions of the Cranial Nerves.— The functions of the nine 

cranial nerves are far less simple than those of the spinal nerves just de¬ 
scribed. In some instances a nerve has both motor and sensorv func- 

%/ 

tions, but in several others a nerve has but a single function. Several 


SYMPATHETIC SYSTEM—THE MIND. 


137 


of the cranial sensory nerves, instead of possessing general sensibility, have 
peculiar sensory properties, from which they are termed nerves of special 
sense. The optic, or nerve of sight, auditory, or nerve of hearing, the 
olfactory, or nerve of smell, and the gustatory, or nerve of taste, are 
those which possess special sensory properties, and these possess little or 
no general sensibility. 

The fifth nerve should be specially noticed as the great sensory nerve 
of the face, since it is disease of this nerve which is the occasion of so 
much suffering in tic douloureux, or facial neuralgia. A branch of this 
nerve supplies the teeth, and hence it is that decayed or diseased teeth 
are so frequent a cause of facial neuralgia. 

Functions of the Sympathetic System. —The name of this sys¬ 
tem of nerves very well indicates its general character. Besides having 
charge of the nutrition of the body, its vegetative or organic functions, 
it connects or associates together the different parts of the system, so 
that when one member suffers, the others suffer with it. A good illus¬ 
tration of the action of this system is seen in a simple experiment per¬ 
formed by Dr. Browm-Sequard. He observed that w T hen he placed one 
foot in cold water, the other became warmer. In one instance the tem¬ 
perature of the foot not immersed rose seven degrees. The reason of 
this is that nature makes an effort to resist the effects of the cold ap¬ 
plied to one foot, by increasing the supply of heat; and through the 
sympathy of the other foot, its heat is increased also. 

The very common phenomena of “taking cold,” and numerous 
other instances of sympathy of one part with another, are due to the 
action of the sympathetic nerves. 

The Mind. —Whatever may be the correct doctrine respecting the 
nature of the human soul, about which science can really say very little, 
it seems very clear from wdiat has been proven respecting the nature of 
the brain and its processes, that mind is nothing more nor less than brain 
action/ It is everywhere granted that the brain is at least the organ of 
the mind. It is certainly relevant to inquire, then, Is not the relation 
between the mind-organ and the mind analogous to the relation knowm 
to exist between the organ of digestion and digestion ? Digestion is a 
process, thought is a process. Digestion is the result of the action of the 
digestive organs ; there is abundant reason to believe that thought 
or mind is the'result of brain action. This view need not interfere 
with any theological view r s concerning the nature of the soul, since it 


138 


ANATOMY , PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


is evident that whatever the soul is, it is something more than mind; 
it must be greater than mind, since mind is only a result, from what¬ 
ever standpoint we look at it. Whatever there may be behind which 
we do not understand, and there is doubtless a great deal, mind is 
still the same, but a result; and it may as well be considered as 
the result of brain action as of the action of any other cause. If we 
deny this regarding man, we must do the same respecting the brute, 
since he also lias a mind, and is capable of thinking, willing, and reason¬ 
ing to a certain degree. Perhaps we cannot do better than to quote the 
following paragraph from one of the foremost thinkers of the age, and 
one of the most distinguished writers on this subject, Dr. Henry Mauds- 
ley, of London :— 

“ It must be distinctly laid down that mental action is as surely de¬ 
pendent on the nervous structure as the function of the liver confessedly 
is on the hepatic structure ; that is the fundamental principle upon 
which the fabric of a mental science must rest. The countless thousands 
of nerve cells which form so great a part of the delicate structure of 
the brain, are deemed to be the centers of its functional activity ; we 
know right well from experiment that the ganglionic nerve cells scat¬ 
tered through the tissues of organs, as, for example, through the walls of 
the intestines, or the structure of the heart, are centers of nerve force min¬ 
istering to their organic action; and we may fairly infer that the gan¬ 
glionic cells of the brain which are not similarly amenable to observation 
and experiment, have a like function. Certainly they are not inexhaust¬ 
ible centers of self-generating force ; they give out no more than what 
they have in one way or another taken in ; they receive material from 
the blood which thev assimilate, or make of the same kind with them- 
selves ; a correlative metamorphosis of force necessarily accompanying 
this upward transformation of matter, and the nerve cell thus becoming, 
so long as its equilibrium is preserved, a center of statical power of the 
highest vital quality. The maintenance of the equilibrium of nervous 
element is the condition of latent thought—it is mind statical ; the man¬ 
ifestation of thought implies the change or destruction of nervous ele¬ 
ment. The nerve cell of the brain, it might in fact be said, represents 
statical thought, while thought represents dynamical nerve cell, or, more 
properly speaking, the energy of nerve cell.” 

Almost any amount of testimony might be added on this point, 
but this will suffice. It is readily granted that there are some diffi¬ 
culties, even with this view of the nature of mind; but it is claimed 


THE MECHANISM OF THOUGHT. 


139 


that the difficulties with this view are much less than with any other, 
and that they are not insurmountable. The view deserves attention, 
at least; since if it he true, it is destined to overturn many of the old 
philosophies in psychology. Indeed, it may almost he said that the 
old philosophies are already abandoned by the majority of the clear¬ 
est thinkers, on account of the great numbers of difficulties which at¬ 
tended them. 

The Mechanism of Thought. —Explained in accordance with the 
scientific theory of mind, the mechanism of thought loses much of its 
complexity, as we may be able to see. According to this view, thought 
really originates in the external world. The eye, ear, organs of touch, 
smell, and taste, and other sense organs, receive impressions from the 
external world, each carrying to the brain the particular kind of im¬ 
pression which it is fitted to convey. The eye conveys impressions 
of light, the ear of sound, etc. These impressions are received through 
the medium of the nerves by certain groups of cells lying at the base 
of the brain which are designed for this purpose. One group receives 
impressions of light, and of all the sensations which can be received 
through the eye. It can receive these kinds of impressions, and no 
others. The same may be said with respect to each of the other 
senses. The special organs, or ganglia, which receive these impressions, 
transmit them through connecting branches to the intellectual part of 
the brain in the cerebrum, where they are recognized as light, sound, 
odor, etc., and this is thought. In this way, ideas respecting the size, 
form, color, and other properties of objects, are formed. If the gan¬ 
glia at the base of the brain convey to the cerebrum the impressions 
which they are in the habit of doing, without being excited to do so 
by the external agents upon which they are dependent, the result is 
the same. If action of the ganglia which presides over the organ of 
sight is excited and the cerebrum informed of the fact, the individual 
will receive the perception of light even if no light is really seen. 
Action of this sort may be excited in a variety of ways, as by me¬ 
chanical irritation or by the use of electricity. Every one who has 
received a severe blow upon the head, as by a fall upon the ice, is 
aware of the fact that concussion of the head will cause a person to 
see flashes of light. A story is told of a man who in an English court 
testified to having seen a man who assaulted him in the dark by the 
light produced by a blow on the head which he received from his as¬ 
sailant. It is not stated whether the testimony was received or not 


140 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


Of course it could not be true, since light thus produced is not real, 
having no existence except in the brain. We have many times pro¬ 
duced the same phenomena by the application of a current of elec¬ 
tricity to the head. Distinct flashes are seen, though the eyes are 
closed. From this it appears that the impression we call light is in 
the brain due to action of certain nerve cells. The same experiment 
may be made with all the other organs with a like result. Ordinarily, 
seeing is the reception of light-waves through the medium of the eye, 
which is an organ specially constructed to receive them, by which 
means the optic nerve is made to convey an impression of a certain 
sort to the cells in the brain set apart for the reception of such impres¬ 
sions, which are thereby induced to act, which action is recognized by 
the cerebrum, the seat of the intellect, as light. If the optic cells are 
made to act in any other way the result is the same, as we have seen. 
It is very evident, then, that so far as the external world is concerned, 
all knowledge respecting it comes to the brain through the organs of 
sense, the only avenues of communication between the brain and the 
outer world. A careful analysis of our stock of knowledge will show 
that it all relates to things of which we have gained information by 
means of our senses; that is, all our knowledge is made up of, or derived 
from, data collected for us by the eye, ear, touch, and other sense or¬ 
gans. If this is not clearly seen at once, it will be by the supposition 
of a case. Let us imagine a person born into the world without a 
single one of the seven senses. It is inconceivable that such a person 
could have a single thought. The life possessed would be but a vege¬ 
tative one. The brain would necessarily be an utter blank, since it 
would be without the most simple materials for thought; there would 
be no means by which the intellectual machinery could be set in 
motion. 

We have not space to elaborate this subject further, and here leave 
it for the consideration of the reader, hoping that those who are pre¬ 
pared to appreciate the questions at issue will continue their investiga¬ 
tion of the nature of mind and the relation of mental activity to the 
brain and nerves. 

The Will. —That power of the mind by which the voluntary acts 
of the body are determined or controlled is termed the will. This is 
undoubtedly the highest function of the brain, since all other of both 
the bodily and mental functions are in some degree subject to it, either 
directly or indirectly. While this is probably the most obscure of all 


THE NATURE OF THE WILL. 


141 


the questions connected with the physiology of the brain, there are 
some very interesting facts known concerning it which are well worthy 
of consideration. 

First, as to the nature of the will. This has been the subject of 
lively discussion among physiologists and metaphysicians for centuries. 
We hear much about free will; yet when we come to study the mani¬ 
festations of volition we find that they are far from possessing that 
degree of freedom which the generally accepted doctrines on the sub¬ 
ject would lead us to suppose. If we carefully analyze an act of vo¬ 
lition, we shall find that desire is the prompting impulse in most if 
not all cases. When we act, it is because something which we regard 
as valuable to ourselves or some other being is to be gained by so do¬ 
ing ; in other words, we act because it is desirable to do so, or seems 
to us to be desirable. We always do what at the moment seems to be 
best, whatever its ultimate consequences may be, and irrespective of 
our knowledge of the consequences. When we refrain from action, it 
is because we desire to do so. Thus will may be manifested in two 
ways, positively and negatively, in acting and in refraining from ac¬ 
tion ; but in both instances the prompting of will is desire. This fact 
seems so clear that we apprehend no one will dispute or disagree with 
it who will stop to reason candidly on the subject. 

If we examine into the nature and origin of desire, we shall find that 
it grows out of a complex combination of circumstances and influences; 
first of which may be mentioned, inheritance. Our mental and physical 
constitution is largely the result of the habits and education of our par¬ 
ents and ancestors for many generations back, together with special cir¬ 
cumstances governing our early development. As Dr. Oliver Wendell 
Holmes has very well said, “Each of us is only the footing up of a 
double column of figures that goes back to the first pair. Every unit 
tells, and some of them are plus, and some minus .” The proofs of this 
are too numerous to need citation here. 

Again, our desires are in a great degree the result of our education. 
Our tastes change with changes in our circumstances. They are modi¬ 
fied by age, and by our associations and social surroundings. Our de¬ 
sires are influenced by those of our friends, by the books we read, by the 
food we eat, by the condition of our bodily health, and by a great vari¬ 
ety of circumstances. It is obvious, then, that as the will is excited to 
action by desire it is far from being wholly free, since it is indirectly so 
dependent on other influences and circumstances. 


142 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE . 


We are well aware, also, that the will is greatly modified by disease. 
A person who in health is active, energetic, positive in all his move¬ 
ments, becomes while suffering from some indisposition, the very reverse. 
A fit of sickness, a pecuniary loss, or other misfortune, will not infre¬ 
quently change a person’s disposition and the character of his will man¬ 
ifestations, for life. 

A careful study of the relation of the will to the body will show that 
its domination is far less complete than usually supposed. It has no 
power over the functions of organic life, as of the heart and blood-vessels, 
the stomach, intestines, and other vital organs, and it is fortunate for us 
that it has not, as the uncertain action of the will—it being so readily 
affected by a great variety of causes—would be fatal to the healthful 
and harmonious action of the vital machinery. Even the power of con¬ 
trol of the so-called voluntary movements is only acquired by degrees 
and after a protracted effort. In this respect, man is inferior to some 
lower animals. The little child learns to walk by painful and laborious 
efforts. At first it cannot control the muscles necessary to effect locomo¬ 
tion. It can readily understand what movements must be made, long 
before it can acquire the power to make them. The beginner in piano¬ 
playing fully appreciates the difference between knowing how to do, and 
doing. The will calls upon certain muscles to act, but they will not un¬ 
til they have been trained to do so. This fact is further seen in the 
great difficulty of making separately movements which have by habit 
been associated, as for example, closing one eye while keeping the other 
open; or moving one hand back and forth in a horizontal plane while 
the other is being moved in a vertical plane, both palms looking down¬ 
ward. It is, indeed, sometimes impossible for us to control our mental 
operations by the will. We camiot think of what we wish to. We 
cannot on all occasions concentrate our minds upon the subjects of which 
we desire to think. The mind will wander into other fields; other and 
widely different subjects of thought will occupy its attention in spite of 
the most vigorous efforts of the will to the contrary. We cannot com- 
mand the brain to stop thinking. It will not obey if so commanded. 
We cannot even compel it to stop thinking upon any special subject 
which may be occupying it except by displacing it by some other idea, 
which may be in turn again displaced by the original thought before we 
are aware of it. 

Without further argument it must be evident that the will is by no 
means wholly free, but that it is, in a very large degree at least, the re- 



THE NATURE OF MEMORY. 


143 


suit of the operation upon us of the various external influences with 
which we are surrounded. 

Physiologists have never been able to locate the will in any partic¬ 
ular organ of the brain. It is probable that it exists in immediate con¬ 
nection with each of the various cerebral centers; in other words, that 
each group of cells which receives nerve fibres from the outside of the 
body and sends back motor fibres possesses its own volition, the will being 
the sum total of action of all these volitionary centers. 

Memory. —Memory is that faculty or property of the brain by 
means of which we are enabled to accumulate knowledge. To say that 
all of the problems involved in a complete explanation of memory may 
be easily solved, would be claiming too much. This much seems pretty 
certain, however, viz., that memory is due to the fixing of impressions in 
the structure of the brain. This view harmonizes perfectly with all the 
known facts relating to this most valuable function of the mind. Every 
impression received, occasions an action of certain parts of the brain. As 
changes of substance are constantly taking place in the brain, it is but 
natural to suppose that cells which are acting will be modified in accord¬ 
ance with the particular manner in which they are acting, their struct¬ 
ure being thus modified by their action. If this were the case it would 
follow that the longer the action were continued the more intense would 
be the impression made upon the structure of the cells acting, and the 
more lasting. This is exactly what does happen. The longer an object 
is viewed, the longer the memory of it remains. The things and places 
which are often seen and become very familiar to us are seldom forgot¬ 
ten. 

Again, if this theory is correct it would follow that the larger the 
number of cells brought into action by an impression as associated with 
it, the more intense and lasting would be the impression. This, too, is un¬ 
doubtedly true. We much better recollect things that we both see and 
hear, than those which we simply see or hear. Objects that we not only 
see and hear but are also able to touch, taste, smell, and otherwise inves¬ 
tigate, we retain in mind the most accurately and the longest. In fact, 
the great secret of a good memory is concentrated attention and associa¬ 
tion of many senses and faculties in observation. By this means we 
gain the advantage of the memory of several different organs or cell 
groups by which to recall the object or fact which we wish to remem¬ 
ber. 

This theory also explains the phenomena of habit. By frequent ac- 


144 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


tion in a certain way the structure of the nerve cells which command 
the action becomes so modified that they act more readily in that 
particular way than in any other. This fact, if it be true, and there 
seems hardly a chance to doubt it, is certainly very suggestive of 
the importance of cultivating right habits of thought, speech, and action, 
since the task of remodeling a deformed and distorted brain is an exceed¬ 
ingly difficult one. 

Blushing. —The sudden reddening of the cheeks known as blush¬ 
ing, is due to the influence of certain emotions upon the vaso-motor 
center, that is, the part of the brain which controls the blood-vessels of 
the body. In some persons, blushing is wholly confined to the cheeks, 
while in others it extends to the forehead, and in still [others to the neck 
and shoulders. Through the influence of mental emotions the walls of 
the blood-vessels become relaxed, causing an unusual afilux of blood to 
the part, which imparts the characteristic redness. An experiment 
sometimes performed by physiologists upon white rabbits illustrates the 
phenomena of blushing and explains its mechanism. In the white rab¬ 
bit the skin is white, and so transparent that changes in the blood-vessels 
can be as readily noted as in human beings. Placing the animal under 
the influence of ether, the experimenter divides the nerve which controls 
the circulation in the ear. The result is that the ear immediately be¬ 
comes flushed; in fact, it blushes. If the nerve is prevented from 
uniting, by removal of a portion of it, the flushing will continue, and, 
in consequence, in the course of a few months it will be found that the 
ear affected by the operation has grown to be appreciably larger than 
the other, in consequence of its larger supply of blood. 

Pain and its Uses* —Pain is simply a modification of general sen¬ 
sibility. It arises from excessive irritation or stimulation of the nerves. 
Thus, the same irritation which in moderate degree, or when of short 
continuance, is agreeable, giving pleasure, when rendered more intense, 
or even if long continued, becomes exceedingly painful. For example, 
the sense of contact of bodies with the skin is not unpleasant, and is 
often very agreeable; but when the contact is made in a peculiar man¬ 
ner, as in titillation, it may become painfully unpleasant. Light is 
pleasant and grateful to the eye in a moderate degree, but becomes very 
painful and unbearable when we attempt to look at the sun. 

Pain is useful as a warning of impending evil. It puts us on our 
guard by informing us that the tissues are in danger of being injured in 
some way. Although unpleasant to bear, and often an unwelcome vis- 


PAIN AND ITS USES. 


145 


itant, pain is a guardian, a faithful sentinel. If it were not for the 
warnings and admonitions we receive from this source, we would 
speedily subject the delicate organism to such violence as to impair its 
functions, if not entirely destroy its utility. This fact is well seen by 
the accidents to which persons are exposed who are in any way de¬ 
prived of this means of warning. For instance, a person who had 
through disease lost the sense of feeling in his lower extremities, in tak¬ 
ing a foot bath put his feet into water so hot that the feet were badly 
burned, being actually parboiled. A gentleman of our acquaintance 
who had lost the sense of feeling in one arm by an accident in which the 
sensory nerves of the arm were divided, while at work on a cold day 
unconsciously froze the fingers of the affected hand so badly that death 
of the tissues took place and considerable portions were lost. Other 
similar instances might be cited. The warnings of pain should always 
be heeded. Nature makes no unnecessary complaints. While it is not 
wise for a person to be on the lookout for pains, magnifying every un¬ 
comfortable sensation, it is important that the timely admonitions of be¬ 
ginning disease should be carefully heeded. Neglect of this often sacri¬ 
fices useful lives which might easily be saved with timely attention. 
Pain, then, should be looked upon as a beneficent provision of nature 
rather than as an enemy. 

The great physiologist, Magendie, makes the following interesting 
remarks concerning the nature of pain:— 

“ Though it may appear like sophistry to say that pain is the shadow 
of pleasure, yet it is certain that those who have exhausted the ordi¬ 
nary sources of pleasure have recourse to causes of pain, and gratify 
them by their effects. Do we not see in all large cities that men who 
are debauched and depraved find agreeable sensations where others ex¬ 
perience only intolerable pain ? ” 

We have seen old topers whose sensibilities had become so depraved 
and benumbed that the strongest liquors failed to excite them, fill a wine¬ 
glass with peppersauee, and quaff the liquid fire as though it were a 
glass of milk or the mildest claret. 

Numerous experiments and observations show that the capacity for 
pain increases with the fineness of the organization. It is pretty clearly 
settled that lower animals suffer much less from the same injury than 
man. Indeed, it is maintained by some that in the lowest orders, as in 
worms and reptiles, there is little if any sensibility to pain, the contor¬ 
tions arising from injury, being really reflex in character. It is notice- 

10 


146 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

able that savages, as a rule, are less sensitive to pain than civilized 
persons. 

Sleep. —Sleep is a physiological condition in which there is cessation 
of activity of the upper lobes of the brain. When a person goes to 
sleep, the blood leaves the brain, the membranes becoming pale and the 
activity of the nerve cells ceasing in consequence. Upon waking, the 
blood returns again very quickly. ' This fact has been observed not 
only in animals, but in human beings in whom large portions of the 
skull have been removed by accident. During perfectly sound sleep 
there is no action of the thinking cells of the brain. There may or may 
not be some degree of activity of the central ganglia, the sensational 
centers, so-called, at the base of the brain, but there will be no degree of 
activity in the cerebrum. 

Dreams never occur in perfectly sound sleep. They are an indica¬ 
tion that there is not complete cessation of activity in the cerebrum. 
The will being dormant, the various faculties act in an irregular, dis¬ 
orderly manner, giving rise to a great variety of absurd, grotesque, in¬ 
consistent mental pictures. It has been remarked that dreams are the 
best index to a person’s character, since they are really but the echoes 
of our waking thoughts. The superstitious confidence which many 
persons put in dreams is in the highest degree unphilosophical, and has 
not a shadow of evidence in its favor. Late eating and deficient phys¬ 
ical exercise are the most common causes of bad dreams. 

Somnambulism. —The habit of walking about while asleep is one 
of the most curious of all the phenomena of nervous action. The som¬ 
nambulistic state is simply an exaggeration of the state of dream. It is 
a condition in which the intellectual faculties are dormant, while many 
parts of the brain seem to be even more active than usual. While in 
this curious state, persons will accomplish feats which would be impos¬ 
sible for them while awake. 

Many remarkable instances of somnambulism are recorded. For 
example, a story is told of one Cortelli, who “ was found one night 
asleep in the act of translating from a dictionary. When his candle 
was extinguished, he arose and went to seek another light. When 
any one conversed with him on any subject on which his mind was 
bent at the time, he gave rational answers, but he seemed to hear 
nothing that was said to him or near him on other subjects. His eyes 
also seemed to be only sensible to those objects about which he was 
immediately engaged, and were quite fixed; so much so, that in read¬ 
ing he turned the whole head from side to side instead of the eyes/* 


MESMERISM. 


147 


Another very remarkable case is related by the Archbishop of 
Bordeaux in the “ Encyclopedia Methodique.” “ It was concerning a 
young priest at the Catholic seminary, who used to rise in his sleep 
and write sermons. Having written a page, he would read it aloud 
and make corrections. ‘ I have seen,’ says the Archbishop, ‘ the be¬ 
ginning of one of his sermons which he had written when asleep ; it 

was well composed.’.He continued to write, although 

a card was held between his eyes and the paper. Hid the history stop 
here, we should have a well-authenticated case of vision without the 
aid of the eyes. But the collateral circumstances show that this writ¬ 
ing was accomplished, not by sight, but by a most accurate mental 
representation of the object to be attained. For after lie had written 
a page requiring correction, a piece of blank paper of the exact size 
was substituted for his own manuscript, and on that he made the cor¬ 
rections in the precise situation which they would have occupied on 
the original page. A very astonishing part of this report is that which 
relates to his wilting music in this sleeping state, which it is said he 
did with perfect precision. He asked for certain things, and saw and 
heard such thing’s, but only such things, as bore directly upon the sub¬ 
ject of his thoughts.” 

There seems to be a very close relation between the somnambulistic 
and the mesmeric states. In both there is voluntary action, though the 
will does not seem to be fully dominant, since movements appear to be 
in a considerable degree automatic. 

Mesmerism. —The secret of mesmerism appears to be in getting 
the will of the subject inactive, and then putting his sensational 
centers in operation through the medium of the senses. We cannot 
imagine that a person could be mesmerized who could neither hear, 
see, nor feel. From a somewhat careful study of the nature and phe¬ 
nomena of mesmerism we are convinced that at least the greater share 
of the manifestations, if not the whole, can be explained in this way. 
At least, we have never seen manifestations which could not be thus 
explained, without the supposition of any occult force. When a per¬ 
son is to be mesmerized, he is placed under conditions the best calcu¬ 
lated to make the will dormant. There must be silence. The subject 
is usually told to direct his eyes upward, either looking at his hand or 
at some small, indifferent object which presents few details to furnish 
fund for thought. After a certain length of time, longer or shorter, 
according to the individual, in some persons the mind will become va- 


148 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


cant of thought, the will inactive. The mental organs are then in a 
condition exactly analogous to that of a scale beam evenly balanced. 
It is ready to act just according as the impression shall be made, and 
so nicely adjusted is the balance that only a very slight impression is 
* necessary to turn the scale. The operator then closes the eyes of the sub¬ 
ject or tells him to do so, perhaps placing his fingers upon his eyes for 
a moment. Then he will say to him in a very positive manner, “ \ ou 
cannot open your eyes.” The operator does not ask the subject if he 
can open his eyes, but assures him that he cannot. If he finds that 
the eyes are not opened, he then feels quite sure that his subject is in 
a condition to be influenced. Then when he tells him to open his eyes, 
they are opened. He wishes him to appear to be engaged in fishing. 
He puts into his hands something slightly resembling a fishing-rod, it 
may be a ruler or a cane. Then he puts into his mind the desired 
idea by telling him that the object he holds is a fishing-rod. He offers 
him something and calls it a line, pretends to find the hook and to 
put a worm upon it, then points in an appropriate direction and says, 
“ There are the fish, see them ! throw in your line and catch one.” 
Thus the mind of the subject is influenced by what is said and done 
to him, what he sees, hears, feels, and otherwise appreciates through 
his senses. All persons cannot be influenced in this way, simply be¬ 
cause their positive mental organization will not allow the mind to 
become vacant and the will dormant. Persons who are easily mes¬ 
merized are those who are naturally easily influenced, whose imagina¬ 
tions are easily excited. A condition very similar to the mesmeric 
state can be induced in animals as well as in human beings. 

The most popular and successful mesmerist at present exhibiting 
in this country said to us a few months since in a conversation on 
the subject of mesmerism, in answer to the question whether the sub¬ 
ject was not affected wholly through the medium of the senses, “Yes, 
chiefly so.” He endeavored to maintain that there was some degree 
of direct action of mind upon mind, but was utterly unable to pro¬ 
duce an instance in which this was done, even when full credit was 
given to his own testimony. There is evidence for believing that the 
cases which seem to illustrate this power of mind are cases of fraud. 

Animal Magnetism. —So much has been said upon this subject of 
late years that we cannot refrain from offering a word upon it, es¬ 
pecially as there exist such wide-spread errors concerning it. 

The doctrine of an occult force by which one person may operate 


ANIMAL MAGNETISM. 


149 


upon another, or by which one mind may affect another otherwise 
than through the medium of the senses, seems to have originated in 
Paris, in the latter part of the last century, with a pretender whose 
claims were investigated by a committee appointed for the purpose by 
the French Academy. Benjamin Franklin, who then resided in Paris, . 
was a member of the committee. After a careful and thorough ex¬ 
amination of the claims of the pretender, they were pronounced to be 
utterly unfounded, it being decided that the phenomena apparently 
due to the operation of some unseen force, were wholly attributable to 
the imagination of the subjects rather than to magnetic or any other 
form of force communicated by the operator. 

We firmly believe that this simple explanation was the correct one 
then, and is correct still. We have never yet seen nor heard of any 
phenomena of the sort in question which were not fairly attributable 
either to the imaoination or to some tangible cause which could be 

O O 

easily pointed out. A few years ago while studying the medical uses 
of electricity with one of the most eminent physicians of New York 
City, who was at that time in charge of the department of nervous dis¬ 
eases at the great Demilt Dispensatory of that city, we had abundant 
opportunity of testing the matter, and were fully satisfied with the 
results. 

The physician referred to was at that time engaged in a series of 
experiments in what he termed mental therapeutics. Under the guise 
of animal magnetism he was experimenting upon the imagination of 
the patients who came under his care. Not a particle of medicine was 
used, nor any other remedial agent. The patient was simply made to 
believe that he was being treated by means of a powerful magnetic 
current; yet, as the Doctor frequently remarked, the results were as 
good as under any method of treatment he had ever employed. The 
same method was not adopted in all cases, but was varied according 
to individual peculiarities, the same general principles being followed, 
however, throughout the course of experiments. In some instances 
the patient was allowed to think that the magnetic virtue had been 
imparted to a certain very bad tasting but inert liquid of which he 
was, with much solemnity, directed to take exactly one drop once in 
twenty-four hours, just as the clock was striking twelve, and on no 
account to take a larger quantity, or to •take it at any other time, as 
the consequences might be something terrible. The effect of infinites¬ 
imal doses was under these circumstances decided enough to gratify 


150 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


the most enthusiastic advocate of high potencies. A solution of noth¬ 
ing in reality but a had taste, potentized by the imagination of the 
patient, wrought wonders of which the most successful “magnetic 
healer ” would be proud to boast. Yet there was no chance for the 
operation of any other force than the minds of the patients themselves. 
To the influence of the mind upon the body must be attributed all the 
so-called magnetic cures. 

A careful study of the nervous system and of the nature of nerve 
force makes it very apparent that the only way in which one mind 
can operate upon another is through the senses. From all we know 
of the mind, its only avenues of knowledge are the seven senses. 
These may receive impressions from external objects and transmit 
them to the brain; but there is no other means known by which 
knowledge of any sort can be imparted. The idea that nerve force 
can be communicated through any other medium than nerves is not to 
be entertained for a moment by scientific physiology. The simplest 
experiments demonstrate the fact that nerve force, volition, mind im¬ 
pulses, or whatever the force may be called, can travel on nothing but 
nerves. For instance, suppose the nerves which control the hand be 
divided. The most powerful effort of the will possible is now utterly 
powerless to cause the hand to move or to show any sign of obedience 
to the mind. The ends of the divided nerve may be united by mus¬ 
cular fibre or other living tissue, but still the channel over which nerve 
force is wont to travel with such rapidity is wholly interrupted. The 
best conductors of electricity, a force more closely allied to nerve or 
mind force than any other, may be used to splice the divided ends, 
but still the result is the same. The divided nerve ends may be 
pressed together as closely as mechanical contact can be made, and yet 
there will be no transmission of force beyond the point of division. 
Before the connection between the brain and the hand can be restored, 
the ends of the nerve must grow together, there must be a restoration 
of the continuity of structure which was broken down in the severing 
of the nerves. When this is done, the nerve resumes its function. 
The nerve force travels over it with the same facility as before, and 
the hand is ao-ain under the domination of the will. The deduction 

O 

is a very clear one that if the mind cannot control or in any way in¬ 
fluence an organ which is actually a part of the body, through which 
the same blood flows which circulates in the brain, and the muscular 
and membranous and bony tissues of which are one with the rest of 


ANIMAL MAGNETISM. 


151 


the body, the only difference being the division of some of the nerves 
or force conductors,—if under these circumstances the mind or will is 
powerless to operate, then how can it be possible that it should have 
power to affect by mere volition objects which are remote from it, or 
even objects which may be touched by the outer surface of the body ? 
There can be but one answer to this question. The brain can only 
operate through the medium of nerves. 

But we shall be asked to answer several questions. Perhaps the 
most frequent query will be, “ If this view be correct, how do you ac¬ 
count for the magnetic influence which some persons seem to possess 
by which they can influence an audience so wonderfully, swaying their 
feelings at will ? ” We answer, there is no evidence that any person 
possesses such magnetic power. Individuals often possess wonderful 
powers of influence, and people differ much in this respect. One man 
will hold a large audience spell-bound for hours, while another can 
scarcely keep a half-dozen in their seats until he has finished. The 
difference consists, not in the possession of magnetism by one and its 
want by the other, but in the different manner in which the two per¬ 
sons address their hearers. Let the most powerfully “magnetic” 
speaker stand before an audience of persons who are both blind and 
deaf, and how much influence could he have over them ? Not a whit. 
He might exert himself to his utmost, he might imagine himself a 
powerful generator of magnetism, and suppose himself to be throwing 
out oceans of magnetic force, but the result would be wholly negative. 
If a force of the kind supposed really existed, the persons situated 
under the circumstances described would feel its influence as really 
and as intensely as though they could both see and hear. This simple 
experiment would settle conclusively the question of magnetism in 
public speakers, and would make evident the fact that what is termed 
magnetism in these cases is simply the sum total of the qualities 
which go to make up a good speaker, especially the gestures, the ex¬ 
pressions of the face and attitudes of the body, the quality and inflec¬ 
tions of the voice, the personal appearance of the speaker, and like 
qualities, all of which appear to the senses and depend for their influ¬ 
ence wholly upon the impressions thus made. 

“ Magnetic rubbers ” effect their cures in two ways: by means of 
exciting the imagination of the patient, and by means of the vigorous 
rubbing to which they frequently subject their patients. It is partic¬ 
ularly noticeable that this class of quacks never cure any organic dis- 


152 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


ease. In many instances the maladies which they seem to expel as by 
magic are imaginary ills which do not really exist at all, except in the 
mind of the patient, or trivial functional disorders which are readily 
controlled by the mind when the patient is made to believe himself 
well. As a means of curing diseases through mental influence, the 
myth, “ animal magnetism,” is unrivaled, and as such it has done a 
great amount of good; but on the other hand the belief in this fallacy 
has done a vast deal of harm by diverting the minds of the credulous 
away from the true principles of hygiene and the healing art. Hence 
we believe that it ought to be thoroughly exposed and condemned. 
Whatever good there may be in appealing to the imagination as a 
means of cure can be utilized without resorting to any such quackery 
as is universally connected with the practice of “ magnetic doctors.” 

Mind-Reading. —The recently developed phenomena of mind¬ 
reading, so called, have been taken by many as positive evidence of the 
existence of some hidden means by which one mind may communicate 
with another otherwise than through the medium of the senses. We 
have been much interested in the phenomena exhibited by persons 
professing to have this power, and have taken some pains to investigate 
them. We enjoyed the opportunity of being present, by invitation, 
at a meeting of scientists, clergymen, physicians, and lawyers, held for 
the purpose of testing the claims of the first mind-reader who ap¬ 
peared before the public, a few years since. The operation called 
mind-reading consisted in the operator’s taking the hand of the person 
whose mind was to be read and pressing it firmly against his forehead, 
after having been securely blindfolded, and then leading him to some 
place in which the individual had previously secreted some object 
without the knowledge of the operator. In nearly every case this 
was done successfully, no matter how distant the spot nor how cir¬ 
cuitous the route taken in secreting it. The operator claimed to put 
his mind in communication with that of the person with whom he 
was operating, and to learn by this means the location of the object. 
The result of the investigation was to show very clearly that the pre¬ 
tended mind-reader could not read the mind of any one but himself, 
and that he had no means of getting information except through the 
senses; but that he possessed an uncommonly fine sense of touch by 
which he could appreciate very slight, and to the individual operated 
with, involuntary, muscular movements. It was always necessary that 
the subject should keep his mind intently occupied with the object 


PHRENOLOGY. 


153 


during the whole experiment, otherwise it was never successful. This 
would naturally incline the individual to make the slightest resist¬ 
ance when moving in the direction of the object. This is undoubtedly 
the correct explanation of the mind-reading mystery. Dr. Geo. M. 



Pig:. 76. A diagram showing the position of the various mental organs or “bumps” 

as located by phrenology. 


Beard, of New York, and other eminent scientists, have carefully in¬ 
vestigated the same phenomena, and have arrived at essentially the 
conclusions stated. 

Phrenology. —Probably no psychological theory originated in 
modern times has had so great an influence upon the minds of the 
civilized people of the globe as has the theory originated by Gall and 
Spurzheim, known as phrenology. Taken together with physiog- 






























154 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


norny, this theory attempts to determine a man’s character by the ex¬ 
ternal configuration of his skull and face. With the exception of a 
very few points which may be considered as quite well established 
by physiological and pathological observations, the theory must be 
'considered as strictly empirical in character. As such, it must be sub¬ 
ject to great changes. Since it cannot be said to have an anatomical 
basis, as all settled theories relating to the brain and nervous system 
must have, phrenology is certainly liable to great and very considera¬ 
ble changes, as the structure and functions of the brain are more 
thoroughly worked out by scientific research. 

While there is much that is good in phrenology as taught by its 
ablest exponents, it is capable of being made an agent for great in¬ 
jury; and we have sometimes questioned whether almost as much 
harm as good was not done by it as it is generally used. Attracted 
by its novelty, thousands have studied it sufficiently to get a very 
slight smattering of the names and locations of the “bumps,” and 
then, supposing they possessed all the requisites to make them com¬ 
petent to delineate the characters of their fellows, point out deficien¬ 
cies and merits, etc., they have set themselves up as phrenologists, 
head-examiners, bump-feelers,—blunderers would be a much more 
proper term to attach to them,—when in fact they hardly possessed 
intelligence and mother-wit enough to become first-da-ss barbers. 
The amount of trash which has been retailed about the country, es¬ 
pecially in the rural districts, under the name of phrenology, is ap¬ 
palling. The harm that these charlatans do is incalculable. They 
fumble the heads of those who visit them, assmne a wonderfully wise 
look, and then proceed to deal out to them a character according as 
their fancy dictates, or as will the best serve their purpose. Even 
when a man lias sufficient information and experience to enable him 
to form a nearly correct estimate of a person’s character, he may still 
be utterly unqualified to give the proper advice to individuals re¬ 
specting the best course to pursue to remedy their defects. The busi¬ 
ness of giving advice to people concerning the work of reforming de¬ 
praved characters, or correcting natural deformities of mind, mental 
and moral, is certainly second to no other in which a human being 
could be engaged, and ought to be attempted only by one who is in 
the most eminent degree qualified for the work. The problems 
which come before a physician who deals with the sick and disor¬ 
dered body are the simplest possible compared with those which pre- 


PHRENOLOGY. 


155 


% 

sent themselves for solution to those who profess to be the physicians 
of the mind. Bad advice given by such an individual may do an in¬ 
calculable amount of harm, as we have had occasion to observe in 
more than one instance. We have known cases in which persons 
who had lived happily for some time in the relation of husband and 
wife have suddenly discovered that they were wholly uncongenial 
and incapable of being happy together after going to a phrenologist 
and being told that they were not adapted to each other. Not long 
since a young man rushed into our office in most precipitate haste, 
having hurried much as he knew we were about leaving to make a 
professional visit. He carried on his face a look of the mast profound 
anxiety. There was evidently a real trouble on his mind. As we 
were about going out he begged us to stop just one moment. We in¬ 
quired if he was sick. “ Oh, no,” he said, “but I must see you just 
one moment.” “Is some one else suddenly taken ill?” we asked, 
really feeling some little alarm, as he appeared so solemn and anxious. 
“No one is sick, he replied, * but I want to see you a moment to find 
out what I am good for.” We were puzzled and asked for an expla¬ 
nation, which he promptly made by saying that he had just made a 
visit to a phrenologist who informed him that he had made a mistake 
in choosing the life-work for which he was fitting himself, the gospel 
ministry, and that he should prepare himself for a physician instead. 
The young man was much agitated in reflecting that so much time 
had been lost, and wanted to begin at once in his proper sphere if he 
could do so. We quieted his fears when we learned the cause, advised 
him to pay no attention to the counsels of his unwise adviser, and to 
pursue, the even tenor of his way as before. He was manifestly un¬ 
fitted for the work of a physician, though he had a great love for 
books, delighted in th,e study of language, was highly conscientious, 
and very desirous of doing good to his fellow-men. His lack of power 
to adapt himself to circumstances, and especially his want of ingenu¬ 
ity either mechanical or otherwise, clearly indicated that almost any 
other calling would be better fitted to him than that suggested by his 
adviser, who charged him a half-dollar for counsel which would have 
made his life a failure had he followed it. Upon inquiry we learned 
that the self-styled phrenologist had condemned his plan to fit himself 
for the ministry on account of his not possessing the phrenological sign 
of large language, although in fact he had a most excellent memory of 
words, having already accpiired good command of three modern lan- 


15 G 


ANATOMY , PHYSIOLOGY , AAZ> HYGIENE. 


gua^es. The work of such men is damaging to the world, and far 
more so than they have any idea themselves. 

We believe that phrenology in the hands of those who make it a 
specialty has been carried to an extreme; that claims are made by its 
advocates of powers which they do not and cannot possess. It is this, 
in fact, which has made the art,—it can hardly be called a science as 
yet,—obnoxious in the eyes of the great mass of scientists. Seeing that 
some claims are preposterous, they have neglected to investigate or 
give credit to any part of what is claimed. The many investigators 
who are now at work upon the cerebrum, examining its structure with 
the closest scrutiny of the microscope, and its functions by means of 
experiments upon living animals the nearest like man in their anatom¬ 
ical structure, will undoubtedly develop in time some facts bearing 
on this subject which will place what is true of the present phreno¬ 
logical doctrines upon a strictly scientific basis, and will add to them 
such elements as they lack of the completeness and definiteness which 
is required for a thoroughly symmetrical system of psychological 
science. 


HYGIENE OF THE BRAIN AND NERVES, 

As the brain and nerves are the controlling parts of the system, it is 
evident that upon the preservation of their health must depend in a very 
great measure the health of the whole body. A man whose brain and 
nerves are diseased cannot be healthy otherwise; neither is a person 
whose nervous system is in a healthy condition likely to be diseased oth¬ 
erwise. The marked increase in nervous affections of late years has be¬ 
come so noticeable that almost every medical writer calls attention to it, 
and this fact makes especially important the consideration of the laws 
which relate to the healthy action of this part of the body. The nerv¬ 
ous structures are the most delicate of all the elements of the bodv; 
and when we consider the additional fact that they are subjected to more 
constant use than any other set of tissues, it certainly is not surprising 
that they should be specially subject to disease; but the great depend¬ 
ence of all other parts of the body upon the nerves makes it still more 
important that their integrity should be preserved. 

Necessity for Mental Exercise— Nerves as well as muscles re¬ 
quire exercise to promote their growth and insure their development. 
That both brain and nerves are capable of development by exercise, and 
that development of these structures is largely dependent upon proper 


NECESSITY FOE MENTAL EXERCISE. 


157 


exercise, are facts too well established to require proof by systematic evi¬ 
dence in this connection. Every-day experience convinces us of the fact. 
In the sharp contests of mind with mind in the battle for existence and 
the strife for fame, riches, and worldly honors, the mind which has been 
the most carefully trained to efficient action, which has by mental gym¬ 
nastics learned to exercise to advantage its powers, always comes off vic¬ 
torious. It is not essential that the training should have been given in 
a school, or that the mental exercise should have been practiced in an 
academy or a college ; the farm, the workshop, the forest, or the coal-pit 
may have been the training-school or the gymnasium, but the work 
was done, and in such a manner as to secure a satisfactory result, and 
that is all that need be asked. 

Mental exercise lies at the foundation of mental growth and mental 
health, and indirectly, we believe, it furnishes a firmer basis for mus¬ 
cular and general physical health than can be attained without it. The 
commonly received notion that mental work is harmful and incom¬ 
patible with physical health we believe to be a gross and pernicious error. 
Our college students, male and female, who break down in health just 
as they have finished their studies, or before they have completed their 
course, are not victims to mental overwork, as a general thing. The 
same may be said of the great army of valetudinarian clergymen, law¬ 
yers, merchants, and others whose occupations are sedentary while in¬ 
volving considerable brain-work. In the great majority of instances, 
the failure of health in these cases is the result of flagrant violations of 
the commonest laws of health, such as deficient muscular exercise, bad 
food, late hours, fashionable dissipation, and, most of all, mental worry. 
The student hives himself up in his close study, probably smokes from 
three to a dozen cigars a day, lives upon the poorest boarding-house 
fare, and takes only just such little muscular exercise as he is compelled 
to do in going to and from his classes. Soon he finds his head dull, and 
he begins to worry because he is troubled to master his lessons. Now 
instead of gaining mental strength by his daily exercise, he is each day 
wearing out the vitality and wasting the very substance of his poorly 
nourished brain. Mental worry is corroding his intellectual powers, and 
he will sooner or later break down, a chronic invalid, and mental work 
will get the credit. In a similar way the clergyman, the lawyer, the 
politician, the merchant, breaks himself down. Thousands suffer with 
what is called “ softening of the brain,” when that organ is wholly in¬ 
tact except so far as it suffers through sympathy with other diseased 
organs, the whole trouble beino: in the stomach and liver. 

O J O 


1.38 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


This subject is so generally misunderstood that we deem it worth 
while to devote considerable space to it, and hence we will call attention 
to a few facts in support of these views, which we have for several 
years advocated in various ways, chiefly in lectures and through the 
journal of which we have had the editorial charge. 

1. There is nothing in mental work which should make it especially 
liable to break down the constitution. On the other hand, it is well 
calculated to insure the highest degree of health. Since all the force 
manifested in the body originates in the nerve centers, chiefly in the 
brain, it is evident that the more vigorous the brain, the more vigorous 
the manifestations of force in the organs dependent upon it. And this 
is just the condition produced by mental labor. The brain grows in 
strength and vigor under exercise, and hence becomes capable of send¬ 
ing out more vigorous impulses to the various parts of the body depend¬ 
ent upon it for supplies of force. 

Mental exercise is also agreeajble to those who devote Themselves to 
it. Authors, philosophers, poets, lawyers, enjoy their work, if successful 
in it; and only those who are successful, at least in a moderate degree, 
continue these pursuits. The same cannot be said of the mere mechanic 
or artisan who toils almost as mechanically as the machines which he 
employs. The poet loves his work and is loth to leave it. The hod- 
carrier gladly drops his hod and rejoices that his daily task is ended 
when the work bell announces the time at which he is allowed to stop. 
The muscle laborer seldom works unless necessity demands it; while the 
brain-worker keeps on toiling as arduously as ever long after the accu¬ 
mulation of a competency makes his labor wholly unnecessary. We 
speak now, of course, of pleasant mental pursuits which are not dis¬ 
turbed by mental worry. The harrowing anxiety of the stock-broker or 
the gambler is not conducive to health, mental or physical. 

2. Brain-workers are long-lived. This statement will be almost 
certain to be disputed, and so we must fortify it with incontrovertible 
facts, which, fortunately, we are well able to do. Quite a little re' 
search has been made upon this question within the last few years, and 
with most decided results in favor of mental workers. 

According to an eminent French writer, Gorgias the rhetorician 
lived to the age of one hundred and eight years, “ without discontinuing 
his studies and without any infirmity.” Epimenides, one of the seven 
“ wise men,” lived to the great age of one hundred and fifty-four. Hip¬ 
pocrates, the father of medical literature, who was a diligent student 


NECESSITY FOR MENTAL EXERCISE. 


159 


and wrote voluminous works, many of which are still extant though 
penned more than twenty centuries ago, lived to the age of ninety-nine ; 
and his master, Herodicus, attained the age of one hundred. Galen, 
one of the most celebrated physicians of antiquity, wrote three hundred 
volumes, many of which are consulted as authorities at the present day, 
and lived to be nearly a hundred years of age. Cornaro lived to the 
age of one hundred, though of a frail constitution, and did vigorous 
mental work for seven or eight hours a day until his death. The great 
Stoic, Zeno, a diligent student, lived to the great age of ninety-eight, 
when he put an end to his life while in the full possession of his facul¬ 
ties because he had received what he took to be an admonition that his 
time to die had come. Socrates was murdered at seventy-one in the 
prime of life. Pythagoras, Pindar, Quintilian, Chrysippus, and Thu¬ 
cydides lived to the age of eighty or upwards. Polybius and Plato died 
at eighty-one. Xenophon, Diogenes, and Carneades died at ninety. Eu¬ 
ripides lived to the age of eighty-five. Anaxagoras died at seventy-two, 
ancl Aristotle at sixty-three. All of these men were hard-working stu¬ 
dents of nature and philosophy. They were the representative men of 
their times. They did work which has resisted the ravages of time and 
come down to us through the Dark Ages, in many respects work which 
cannot be surpassed in excellence, and often is unapproachable in its per¬ 
fection. Yet all of them lived to almost double the present average 
length of life. Their average length of life is more than ninety-one 
years, which certainly does not militate against mental work as con¬ 
ducive to longevity. 

Dr. Madden, in an able work on the “ Infirmities of Genius ” gives 


twelve tables of noted men of twenty names each, which 
lows:— 

sum up as fol- 

> 

AVERAGE AGE. 

Twenty Natural Philosophers, ..... 

. 75 

<< 

Moral Philosophers, ...... 

70 

u 

Sculptors and Painters, ..... 

. 70 

t( 

Authors on Law, etc., . . . . . 

69 

t< 

Medical Authors, . 

. 68 

tc 

Authors on Religion, ...... 

G7 

u 

Writers on Language, ..... 

. 66 

(( 

Musical Composers, ...... 

64 

u 

Miscellaneous Authors, ..... 

. 62 

u 

Dramatists, ....... 

62 

a 

Writers on Natural Religion,.... 

. 62 

(C 

Poets,. 

5 i 

Average of thesfe Two Hundred and Forty Brain-Workers, . GG 



160 


ANATOMY , PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


That the unusual longevity of the brain-workers already referred to 
was not due to the fact that they lived at an earlier age of the world is 
evidenced by the fact that the same characteristic is noticeable among 
mental workers of the present day, as is shown by the following table, 
which is made up of men who have lived in recent times :— 


Bacon, Boger, 

78 

Young, 

84 

Buffon, 

81 

Ferguson, 

92 

Galileo, 

78 

Kant, 

80 

Copernicus, 

70 

Beid, 

86 

Lowenhoeck, 

91 

Goethe, 

82 

Newton, 

84 

Crebillon, 

89 

Whiston, 

95 

Goldoni, 

85 

Erasmus, 

69 

Watt, James, 

83 

Bentliam, 

85 

Hobbes, 

91 

Mansfield, 

88 

Locke, 

72 

Le Sage, 

80 

Stewart, D., 

75 

Wesley, John, 

88 

Voltaire, 

84 

Hoffman, 

83 

Cumberland, 

80 

Pinel, 

84 

Southern, Thomas, 

86 

Claude, 

82 

Coke, Lord, 

85 

Titian, 

96 

Wilmot, 

83 

Franklin, 

85 

Babelais, 

70 

Halley, 

86 

Harvey, 

81 

Bollin, 

80 

Heberden, 

92 

Waller, 

82 

Michael Angelo, 

96 

Chalmers, 

83 

Handel, 

75 

South, Dr., 

83 

Hayden, 

77 

Johnson, Dr., 

75 

Buysch, 

93 

Cherubini, 

82 

Winslow, 

91 

Herschel, 

84 

Morgagui, 

89 

Laplace, 

77 

Cardan, 

76 

Linnaeus, 

72 

Fleury, Cardinal, 

90 

Metastasio, 

84 

Auguetel, 

84 

Milton, 

66 

Swift, 

78 

Bacon, Lord, 

65 

Watts, Dr., 

74 


The average age of all the above-named persons, sixty in all, is a lit¬ 
tle more than eighty-two. 

It is very evident that experience is decidedly against the commonly 
received notions on this subject. Though further evidence L scarcely 
needed, we may add the following from a recently published paper by 
Dr. Geo. M. Beard, of New York, well known as an eminent electrician 
and neurologist:— 




PROPER DEVELOPMENT OF CHILDREN’S MINDS. 


161 


“ I have ascertained the longevity of five hundred of the greatest 
men in history. The list I prepared includes a large proportion of the 
most eminent names in all the departments of thought and activity. 

“ It would be difficult to find more than two or three hundred illus¬ 
trious poets, philosophers, authors, scientists, lawyers, statesmen, gen¬ 
erals, physicians, inventors, musicians, actors, orators, or philanthropists 
of world-wide and immortal fame, and whose lives are known in suf¬ 
ficient detail, that are not represented in this list. My list was prepared, 
not for the average longevity, but in order to determine at what time of 
life men do their best work. It was, therefore, prepared with abso¬ 
lute impartiality; and includes, of course, those who, like Byron, Ra¬ 
phael, Pascal, Mozart, Keats, etc., died comparatively young. Now the 
average age of those I have mentioned, I found to be 64.20. 

“ The average age at death at the present time, of all classes of those 
who live over twenty years, is about fifty. Therefore the greatest men 
of the world have lived longer, on the average, than men of ordinary 
ability in the different occupations, by fourteen years ; six years longer 
than physicians and lawyers ; nineteen or twenty years longer than 
mechanics and day-laborers; from two to three years longer than 
farmers ; and a fraction of a year longer than clergymen, who are the 
longest-lived in our modern society.” 

Dr. Beard states among other conclusions at which he has arrived as 
the result of his investigations,— 

“ 1. That the brain-working classes—clergymen, lawyers, physicians, 
merchants, scientists, and men of letters—live very much longer than 
the muscle-working class. 

2. That those who follow occupations that call both muscle and 
brain into exercise, are longer-lived than those who live in occupations 
that are purely manual. * 

“3. That the greatest and hardest brain-workers of history have 
lived longer on the average than brain-workers of ordinary ability and 
industry. 

“ 4. That clergymen are longer-lived than any other great class of 
brain-workers.” 

Proper Mode of Developing the Minds of Children. —That 
there is a right way and a wrong way of dealing with young minds in 
order to develop them so as to fit them for their highest usefulness in 
after-years, is patent not only from the nature of things, but from the 
unsuccessful results to be seen in the illy developed minds of thousands 

11 



162 


ANATOMY , PHYSIOLOGY , AND HYGIENE. 


of men and women whom we daily see trying in vain to make their 
way well in the world against the numerous obstacles placed in their 
pathway, the most insurmountable of which are the results of bad 
training. 

O 

In a great many instances, perhaps in the greater share of cases, 
the process of education is a process of perversion from first to last. 
The child, when put to school at an age altogether too early, instead 
of being led along the path marked out by Nature for him to walk 
in, in his pursuit of knowledge, is set to work, or gone to work 
at, in a manner the most remotely removed from the natural order. 
Instead of beginning where Nature does, with the development 
and training of the perceptives, the sources of knowledge, thus teach¬ 
ing the learner at the outset how to observe thoroughly and accu¬ 
rately, in nine cases out of ten the teacher begins by giving the child 
instruction which can have no other influence than to lessen his reli¬ 
ance upon his own powers of observation and perception, and lead him 
to take such information as is dealt out to him unquestioningly, and 
without being able to see any natural relations between the knowledge 
imparted and that which it is supposed to represent. Thus his edu¬ 
cation continues, his mind being dwarfed by improper methods, and 
his body injured by unnecessary and harmful confinement, until the 
child either dies, becomes an educated dolt, or perchance, from natural 
brilliance of intellect, breaks away from the fetters forged around him 
and begins to think for himself at last, and then really begins to learn. 

The majority of children do not enjoy school-life. It is irksome 
to them. It is actually repulsive, and naturally so. Learning is made 
hard work, when for them it ought to be made play. Children do 
not generally like work, but they do love play; and if instruction 
could be imparted to them through methods which would be to them 
play, a great gain would be made. The efforts of the managers of 
Kindergartens in this direction are certainly commendable, and we 
hope they will be successfully introduced into every city and village 
in the land. We heartily concur in the following observations on this 
subject made by Dr. Richardson, one of the most eminent medical sci¬ 
entists of Europe :—• 

“For children under seven years of a^e the whole of the teaching 
that should be naturally conveyed should be through play, if the body 
is to be trained up healthily as the bearer of the mind. And it is 
wonderful what an amount of learning can by this method be at- 


SCHOOL CLAMMING. 


1G3 


tamed. Letters of languages can be taught; conversations in differ- 

O O O y 

ent languages can be carried on; forms of animal life can be classified; 
the surface of the earth can be made clear; history can be told as 
story; and a number of other and most useful truths can be instilled 
without ever forcing the child to touch a book or read a formal lesson.” 

School Cramming. —Nothing could be more unscientific nor more 
unphysiological than the popular methods of instruction in vogue in 
most of our schools for youth as well as in those for small children. 
The idea of education entertained by the average teacher is that it 
consists in infusing into the mind of the pupil the largest possible 
amount of knowledge which it can be made to contain. Little is 
thought of the necessity for thorough and systematic discipline of the 
mental faculties. Consequently, it is generally the case that the stu¬ 
dent’s entire experience at school or college is one continual course of 
perversion. Instead of being taught how to think and study to the 
best advantage, how to investigate for himself, how to originate ideas 
and to become mentally independent, the student is continually dis¬ 
couraged by the methods employed by his instructors, from any at¬ 
tempt at originality or independence of thought, and thus becomes a 
dogmatic mental dwarf. We sincerely hope that the day will come 
when our educators will regard the primary object of schools to be 
culture and training of the human body, mentally, morally, and 
physically. 

No system of education can be complete which does not give due 
prominence to the pupil’s culture morally and physically, as well as 
mentally. The acquisition of knowledge should be regarded not as 
the primary object of education, but as a useful incidental result, ne¬ 
cessitated by the nature of the discipline to be acquired. 

Students should be thoroughly imbued with the idea that the ob¬ 
ject of them school-work is not so much to impart to them a knowl¬ 
edge of facts, as to teach them how to acquire facts, how to investi¬ 
gate, how to compare, how to reason, how to utilize knowledge after 
it has been acquired. The methods of education generally followed 
in our colleges, fill young men with facts, and pack their craniums 
with the ideas of men who lived two thousand years ago, and then 
graduate them and send them out into the world destitute of even a 
modicum of practical knowledge, without the ability to use the facts 
which they have gained. Such men have much knowledge, but are 
unable to use it to practical advantage; and a score of them are of 


164 


ANATOMY , PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


less real use to the world than one practical man whose fund of infor¬ 
mation is almost infinitely smaller, but who possesses the faculty of util¬ 
izing knowledge. There is great need of reform in our educational in- 
stitutions, and w T e are glad to see some evidences of improvement in this 
direction. The times call for practical men, and the public mind is being 
aroused to ascertain why there is so great a scarcity of men of this class. 
We hope the inquiry will continue, and that the agitation of the ques¬ 
tion which has begun, will increase until conservatism, prejudice, and 
dogmatism, which are the chief obstacles against educational reform, are 
swept aw r ay by the rising tide of public opinion in favor of progress in 
this direction. 

Unsymmetrical Mental Development. —A marked tendency of 
the times is toward the selection of specialties, not only in the profes¬ 
sions, but in all departments of life. This seems to be necessary on tw r o 
accounts: 1. The accumulation of facts in the various departments of 
human knowledge is so great that a single mind cannot hope to grasp 
all. The best an individual can do is to become thoroughly conversant 
with one or two arts or sciences. Human life is not long enough, even 
if the capacity of the brain were sufficient, which there is reason 
to doubt, to master all that is known in the various subjects of study. 
2. Some persons are born wfith a, peculiar fitness for certain pur¬ 
suits, mental or muscular, or both, and hence they will be most likely 
to succeed in those particular pursuits. This tendency, although it 
seems to be a natural outgrowth of the present state of society and of 
the world, and a necessary result of a high grade of culture, is never¬ 
theless detrimental to the individual. While it benefits society as a 
whole, making it more perfect than it could otherwise be, the gain of 
society is at the expense of its individual members, or of some of 
them at least. By the undue development of certain faculties to the 
neglect of others, the sum total of brain force is weakened, and the 
brain becomes a monstrosity, and the mind a distortion. It is more 
than probable that this specialization of labor and of mental develop¬ 
ment is one of the causes which induce, at first eccentricity and after¬ 
ward actual insanity, which is but one step removed from w^ell-marked 
eccentricity. It is far better for each individual to acquire as equable 
a development as possible, mentally, physically, and morally; each 
one should endeavor to acquire as much as possible of this equable 
culture, as it will add force and endurance to the mind, even should 


STIMULANT& AND NARCOTICS . 


1G5 


the individual afterward become a specialist in some branch of 
knowledge. 

Evils of Excessive Brain-Labor. —While a proper amount of 
brain-labor is in the highest degree wholesome and conducive to lon¬ 
gevity, as already shown, too much mental work is harmful in a high 
degree. The brain wears rapidly, and requires abundant time for 
rest and repair in sleep; when this is supplied, almost any amount of 
work may be performed which is possible to the individual. Brain- 
worry wears much faster than work, and to it should be attributed 
much that has been charged to brain-work. Physiologists have shown 
that three hours of severe mental labor exhausts the system as much 
as ten hours of severe physical labor, which leads to the conclusion 
that less time should be spent in mental labor than is usually spent in 
muscular labor between the intervals of rest. The student or profes¬ 
sional man who goads his brain into activity when it is exhausted by 
want of sleep or long and severe labor, commits a crime against him¬ 
self. The strongest mind will eventually break down under such 
usage. When the brain is weary, and thought is laborious, rest is re¬ 
quired, and it should be secured. 

Pernicious Effects of Stimulants and Narcotics.— Brain-work¬ 
ers are of all classes the most strongly tempted to make use of ex¬ 
citants to enable them to obtain from their tired nerves a little more 
work than they are capable of doing with safety. Alcohol, tobacco, 
tea, coffee, and chocolate are all used for this purpose, and with ap¬ 
parent advantage in some cases, temporarily at least. But the ad¬ 
vantage is only apparent. These drugs, and all others which operate 
in a kindred manner, are deceptive; they make a person believe he is 
not tired, when he is exhausted; they make him think he is warm, 
when he is really cold. They make him believe he is strong, when he 
is weak. Their use is most pernicious in its effects, since it more than 
doubles the danger from overwork. When in a natural condition, a 
man can tell by his feelings when he has gone to the full limit of his 
powers of endurance; but when his nerves are stupefied by alcohol or 
tobacco, or exhilarated with tea or coffee, he has no landmarks; he is 
at sea, and is certain to meet with disaster and shipwreck unless he 
change his course. This subject is more fully considered in a chapter 
devoted to the subject, to which the reader’s attention is invited. 


166 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY , AND HYGIENE . 


THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 

/ 


In such low forms of life as the mussel and the earth-worm, what 
little sensation is present is of a very simple kind. As we rise higher 
in the scale of being, the general property of sensibility is modified to 
meet the wants of the higher order of existence, and special properties 
are developed. In man, in whom is found the highest type of sensi¬ 
bility, there are, in addition to the general sensibility which pervades 
the whole body, seven varieties of sensation, termed the special senses. 
Formerly there were enumerated but five, hearing , seeing , smelling, 
tasting, and feeling; but two others have been added within a few 
years, the sense of temperature, and the muscular sense, or. the sense of 
weight. Each of the first five of these requires a special organ for its 
manifestation ; to the study of these organs of the special senses and 
their functions we will now give our attention, considering the simpler 
organs first, and so gradually approaching the more complicated, which 
are undoubtedly the most wonderful exhibitions of delicate onmniza- 
tion and perfect adaptation of means to ends in the body. 

THE SKIN, 

The skin contains the organs of touch, but cannot itself be called 
the organ of touch, as it performs several other functions, some of which 
are fully as important as this. The mucous membrane of the mouth 
and nose also possesses tactile sense. The skin is composed of two 
principal layers, which are easily separated, after death, by maceration 
in water. The inner of the two is the true skin, or cutis vera, in 
which are located all the organs and elements to which the functions 
or the skin are due. The basis of the structure of the skin is a dense 
network of elastic fibres, among which are closely interwoven minute 
blood-vessels, nerve filaments, and lymphatic or absorbent vessels. The 
skin also contains little pockets, or follicles, from which the hair 
grows, each hair from a single follicle. Closely connected with the 
hair follicles are small glands, the function of which is the production 
of fatty or sebaceous matter. Here are also found the perspiratory or 
sweat glands, which will be more accurately described elsewhere. 
Another interesting element of the true skin is involuntary muscular 
fibre, the contraction of which draws the skin into the peculiar condi¬ 
tion known as sroose-flesh. 

O 



THE SENSE OF TOUCH. 


167 


The cuticle , or epidermis , is wholly made up of cells, which are pro¬ 
duced by the true skill beneath. As the cells grow older they become 
shrunken and dead, and are gradually pushed out to the surface, becom¬ 
ing dried and falling off as new cells are pushed out beneath. These 
dead cells give to the epidermis a horny character, and when viewed 
with a microscope its outer layers are seen to be composed of delicate 
little scales, which are the dead cells referred to. The lower part of the 
epidermis contains colored cells, upon which the color of the skin in dif¬ 
ferent persons and different races depends. In the negro these cells are 
abundant, giving to the skin a black color. In the lighter races they 
are less abundant, there being very few in the skin of the Caucasian, 
and none at all in the albino, whose transparent epidermis shows very 
clearly the red color of the living tissues beneath, with their abundant 
supply of blood-vessels. 

The thickness of the cuticle varies in different parts of the body and 
in different persons. Its use is to protect the true skin beneath. 

The structure of the skin is very well shown in Plate IY. 

The nerves of touch terminate in the true skin, in a variety of ways. 
It is probable that in the majority of instances they end in the hair fol¬ 
licles already mentioned; but in the parts of the body in which the 
sense of touch is most acute, as the hands, a special arrangement to give 
the greatest possible delicacy is provided. This consists of what is 
known as tactile corpuscles, which are cone-shaped, corpuscular, resist¬ 
ing bodies located in the papilke of the skin, as shown in the plate. 
The nerve fibres which convey tactile impressions terminate in these 
bodies, after coiling two or three times among them. The resistance 
which the corpuscles afford, adds greatly to the delicacy of the sense 
of touch. It is their presence in large numbers at the ends of the lin¬ 
gers which gives to this part of the skin such accuracy of touch. More 
than one hundred of these corpuscles were counted in a space near the 
end of a finger of an inch square, which would make more than 
200,000 to the square inch. 

The Sense of Touch. —Of the seven special senses this is undoubt¬ 
edly the most simple; yet through it we learn many of the most im¬ 
portant facts which we possess concerning external objects. We learn by 
it such properties of objects as size, form, and character of surface as to 
smoothness or roughness. The sense of touch greatly assists the other 
senses in acquiring correct ideas of the nature of bodies. We are rarely 
fully conscious of our real dependence upon this sense, or of the degree 


168 


ANATOMY , PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


to which it may be developed, until deprived of some of the other senses, 
especially sight. Numerous examples are given of persons who, upon 
losing their sight, have been enabled to develop their sense of touch to 
such a degree as to be really marvelous. Probably one reason for this 
remarkable increase in the delicacy and 
tration of the attention upon it when the sight is absent from birth, or 
has been destroyed. 

The sense of touch differs greatly in delicacy in different parts of the 
body. The acuteness of the tactile sense in any part may be readily 
tested by observing the distance at which two pin points may be placed 
from each other without being recognized as two distinct objects. For 
example, two points applied in this way to the hand, will be recognized 
as two when but a slight distance apart; while upon the back they 
may be removed some considerable distance without l>eing distinguished 
as more than one object. In this way the whole skin has been tested, 
the results showing that of all parts, the tip of the tongue is the most 
sensitive, recognizing points which are not more than one-twenty-fifth 
of an inch apart. The tips of the fingers rank next in sensibility, dis 
tinguishing objects which are no nearer to each other than one-seven¬ 
teenth of an inch. From the tips of the fingers the acuteness of touch 
rapidly diminishes as we recede, being represented by a distance of one- 
seventh inch at the portion of the finger next the palm of the hand, one- 

third on the back of the fingers, 
three-fifths on the back of the 
hand, two-thirds on the skin of 
the throat, one and one-half 
inches on the sternum, and two 
inches at the middle of the back. 
The cheek is much more sensi¬ 
tive than the back of the hand, 
recognizing objects at one-third 
of an inch. Objects are recog¬ 
nized on the dorsum of the foot 
at a distance of one inch. 

The sense of touch may be regarded as one of the most reliable of all 
the senses ; yet we are liable to deception by it if impressions are re¬ 
ceived in a manner different from that in which they usually are. This 
fact is illustrated by an experiment the origin of which dates back to 
Aristotle. If two fingers be crossed as shown in Fig. 77, and a small 



mg. 77. 


efficiency of touch is the concen- 





THE MUSCULAR SENSE. 


169 


object placed between the ends, the impression will be that two objects 
are felt. The reason of this evidently is that by crossing the fingers 
the two sides of the fingers opposed are such as have been taught to dis¬ 
tinguish separate objects, and they tell the same story which they have 
been educated to tell, notwithstanding it does not agree with the 
facts. This shows clearly that the action of the nerves as well as that 
of the brain is largely the result of education. An illustration of the 
same fact is to be found in a surgical operation sometimes performed for 
the restoration of a nose which has been destroyed by accident or dis¬ 
ease. In this operation the skin of the forehead is brought down and 
made to grow into the form of a nose ; but the sense of touch still re¬ 
tains the old position, so that when the new nose is touched, the impres¬ 
sion is conveyed to the brain that the forehead has been touched. After 
a few months, however, the sense of touch is educated to recognize its 
new position, and the difficulty is overcome. 

So with persons who have suffered amputation of a limb ; they con¬ 
tinue to feel the fingers or toes for some time. Persons have even 
claimed to feel actions which really occurred in amputated limbs. 
Such claims are, however, wholly based on the imagination. The phe¬ 
nomenon is due to the fact to which attention has just been called, that 
the nerves form the habit of carrying impressions from certain points, 
and whenever irritated in any way, carry the same impression even if 
they are no longer connected with the original points. The deception 
gradually fades away, the nerves by degrees becoming accustomed to 
their new condition, so that the amputated limb seems to grow grad¬ 
ually shorter and shorter until its real condition is correctly recognized 
by the nerves. 


THE MUSCULAR SENSE, 

The sense by which weight is appreciated, or the muscular sense, is 
supposed to be located in the muscles. It is evidently distinct from 
the sense of touch, because the tactile sense may be wholly obliterated by 
disease while the muscular sense remains. 

It is this sense which enables a person to judge of the weight of an 
object, and to adjust his outlay of strength to the object to be lifted. If 
it were not for this sense our movements would be very irregular and 
spasmodic. 


170 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE . 


THE SENSE OF TEMPERATURE, 

This sense bears a close relation to the tactile sense, but is also proven 
to be different because it often exists when the sense of touch has been 
lost by disease, and is sometimes lost while the tactile sense remains intact. 
By means of this sense we are able to determine degrees of temperature 
within certain limits. When an object which is very hot is brought in 
contact with the skin, the sensation is of pain, rather than of heat. It is 
a curious fact that the effect upon the nerves of sense as well as upon the 
tissues is essentially the same whether the object be very hot or very cold. 

The thermal sense is not an accurate measure of heat, since, as with 
all other forms of sensibility, its impressions are relative rather than 
positive. This is well shown by a simple experiment. Place in three 
vessels a quantity of water of different temperatures, making that in 
the first vessel very cold, that in the third very hot, and that in the sec¬ 
ond intermediate between the two. Place one hand in the cold water 
and the other in the hot, holding them in the water one or two min¬ 
utes. Then put first one hand and then the other into the middle vessel 
of water at the medium temperature. The curious fact will be ob¬ 
served that each hand tells a different story about the temperature of 
the water in this vessel. The one which has been in the hot water says 
it is cold, while the other hand, which was removed from the vessel of 
cold water, declares that it is warm. From this experiment it is clear 
that our ideas of temperature gamed through the thermal sense are only 
relative. 

It is also worthy of notice that the apparent temperature of ob¬ 
jects depends in a great measure upon their character. An object 
which is a good conductor of heat seems to possess a much higher 
temperature than one which is a poor conductor, although the abso¬ 
lute temperature of both may be exactly the same. It is this fact 
which causes metals and liquids to seem warmer at a given tempera¬ 
ture than gases and solid objects composed of such poor conductors as 
wood, straw, hair, and similar substances. Liquids of a higher tem¬ 
perature than 120° can be borne but for an instant, while vapor of 140° 
or 150° can be endured without pain, and the whole body may be im¬ 
mersed in hot air at a temperature of 250° and upward with impu¬ 
nity. We have remained some minutes in a room of this temperature 
without the slightest injury; and persons have been known to en¬ 
dure a very much higher temperature in perfectly dry air. 


THE SENSE OF TASTE. 


171 


THE SENSE OF TASTE, 

The sense of taste, or gustatory sense, is located in the mucous 
membrane of the tongue, being attributable to two nerves, one of 
which is distributed in the anterior portion of the organ, and the other 
in the mucous membrane of the back part of the tongue and mouth. 
The terminal filaments of these nerves seem to end in little promi¬ 
nences with which the membrane is closely studded, which are known 
as papillce. The larger of these are supposed to be devoted to the 
sense of taste, while the smaller contain nerves of touch and of the 
thermal sense, both of which forms of sensibility are possessed by the 
tongue in a high degree, especially by its tip, which possesses the most 
delicate tactile sense of any part of the body. This portion is not 
quite so sensitive to taste as the posterior portion of the organ. 

The sense of taste, like the senses of touch, weight, and tempera¬ 
ture, is exercised only upon bodies which come in immediate contact 
with it. In the case of taste, however, mere mechanical contact is not 
sufficient. An object to be appreciated by the gustatory sense must 
be dissolved, so that it may come in direct contact with the nerves of 
taste by penetrating the papillae in which they terminate; hence, any 
substances placed upon the tongue when dry, will not be tasted until 
dissolved, if at all; and insoluble substances evidently can possess no 
gustatory properties. When the tongue becomes “ coated ” or “ furred,” 
as it often does in sickness, the sense of taste is greatly lessened in 
acuteness, which accounts in a great degree for the insipidness of 
foods and drinks so often complained of at those times. 

Physiological experiments seem to show that the sense of taste is 
confined to the tip, edges, and back portion of the tongue, and the 
back portion of the roof of the mouth and the soft palate, being ab¬ 
sent from the lips, gums, middle of dorsum or back of tongue and its 
under side, and from the front part of the roof of the mouth. 

Tastes are classified as acid, saline, bitter, and sweet, though it is 
evident that there\are many flavors which are not included in this 
classification, and which cannot be accurately described. Of these 
different tastes it is curiously observed that those of a saline and bit¬ 
ter character are best appreciated by the back portion of the tongue, 
and sweet and acid flavors by the anterior portion. Some physiolo¬ 
gists claim that acids are best appreciated by the sides of the tongue. 
All of these various tastes seem to he increased by friction of the 


172 


ANATOMY, riTYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


tongue against the roof and sides of the mouth, which is probably due 
to the diffusion of the sapid substance. 

Taste Aided by other Senses. —Many of the properties of sub¬ 
stances appreciated in the mouth prove, upon careful examination, 
to be recognized by other senses than that of taste, although credit is 
given to the latter. For instance, people often speak of astringent, 
oily, mealy, watery, smooth, burning or pungent, and cool tastes, when 
in reality these are not tastes at all, but are properties recognized by 
the senses of touch and temperature. So, also, substances are spoken 
of as having strong tastes when they have very little taste indeed, 
but are simply smelled when in the mouth. Sight is also an aid to 
the sense of taste by exciting agreeable anticipations. 

The U ses of Taste.—Besides being a source of gratification, the 
sense of taste is useful as a guide in the selection of food. As a gen¬ 
eral rule, substances which are unpalatable, repugnant to the taste, 
are unwholesome. There are^it is true, cases of individual idiosyn¬ 
crasy in which the sense of taste rejects articles which are really 
wholesome; but even in these cases the taste may many times be a 
correct guide, as the digestive organs are in close sympathy with the 
gustatory sense and might resent the usually wholesome aliment on 
account of the same unexplainable peculiarity. 

The taste is susceptible of education in a very high degree.. Even 
the most repugnant substances may by degrees be made acceptable. 
Tastes vary greatly in different countries, one nation considering as a 
delicacy what would be most loathsome to others. For instance, noth¬ 
ing could be more repulsive to the palate of a Frenchman than the 
putrid flesh considered as a delicacy by some nations; and it is quite 
likely that the latter would consider equally disgusting the asafetida 
which the former sometimes employs as a flavor in his dainty dishes. 

Electrical Excitement of the Sense of Taste. —The sense of 
taste may be excited by a current of electricity as well as by sapid 
substances. A very simple experiment will illustrate this fact. Place 
upon the upper side of the tongue a piece of brightly polished zinc, 
and upon the under side a large copper penny or a silver half-dollar, 
bringing the edges of the two metals together at the tip of the tongue. 
In a few seconds a very strong metallic taste will be experienced. If 
the positive pole of a battery be touched to the tongue, while the other 
is held in the hand, an alkaline taste will be experienced ; and the ap¬ 
plication of the negative pole will produce a strongly acid taste. We 


THE ORGANS OF SMELL. 


173 


have frequently observed in practice that excitation of the nerve of 
taste is often felt by patients during the application of galvanism to 
other parts of the body. 

THE ORGANS OF SMELL. 

The organ of smell, or the olfactory sense, is located in the upper 
part of the nasal cavity, the mucous membrane of which part receives 
the branches of the olfactory nerve which are sent down from the ol¬ 
factory bulbs—a portion of the brain located just above—through a 
large number of very small openings in the floor of the skull, provided 
for this purpose. The balance of the mucous membrane of the nose is 
supplied with branches from the general sensory nerve of the face, 
and has nothing to do with the sense of smell. The ends of the ol¬ 
factory nerves are not imbedded in the mucous membrane as are the 
nerves of taste and the sensory nerves, but are exposed with a very 
slight covering of epithelium, so that they may receive more delicate 
impressions. Smell is produced by the actual contact of odorous par¬ 
ticles with the nerve filaments. It seems also to be necessary that 
these particles should be brought to the nose suspended in the air; 
since the nasal cavity may be filled with rose-water, the odor of which 
is very marked, without exciting the sense of smell in the slightest 
degree. Although a certain degree of moisture is necessarily main¬ 
tained, the presence of a large amount of fluid interferes with the 
function of smell altogether. In ordinary breathing, the air taken in 
through the nose passes only through its lower passages, and does 
not come in direct or immediate contact with the nerves of smell in 
the upper portion of the cavity; but odorous particles in the air reach 
the nerves of smell by diffusion of the air upward. By the act of 
sniffing, however, which is instinctively performed when we wish to 
intensify the sense of smell, the air is forcibly drawn up into the up¬ 
per part of the nasal cavity, and thus brings a larger number of parti¬ 
cles in contact with the olfactory nerve than in ordinary respiration. 

We are able, by means of the olfactory sense, to appreciate a very 
great variety of odors, the number of which is so great as to make 
almost utterly impossible any attempt to classify them. These odors 
can not only be distinguished when presented separately, but also 
when mingled they can be recognized individually. The quantity of 
material necessary to excite the sense of smell is exceedingly minute. 
A single grain of musk will fill a room with its odor for many years 
without appreciably diminishing in weight. 


174 


ANATOMY , PHYSIOLOGY , JLVD HYGIENE. 


It is a curious fact that mental impressions and associations are 
more closely connected with smell than with any other sense. Many 
persons are so susceptible in this regard that a very slight excitation 
of the sense with certain odors will cause them to faint. 

Uses of the Sense of Smell. —In addition to- affording a great 
amount of pleasure by enabling us to recognize the numerous del¬ 
icate and pleasing perfumes which abound in nature, especially in the 
botanical world, the sense of smell apprizes us of unwholesome con¬ 
stituents in the air, and of our proximity to sources of injury to 
health. The olfactory sense thus protects not only the lungs and 
other respiratory organs, by enabling us to avoid irritating gases 
which might cause serious injury to the whole system, but it is also 
useful to enable us to judge of the properties of food, and to stimulate 
the appetite and the action of the organs of digestion. It is not true 
that all harmful substances possess bad odors, but it is almost univer¬ 
sally true that substances possessing an unpleasant odor are not 
wholesome. The sense of smell is a valuable sentinel to the citadel 
of life, and ought to be carefully guarded and protected. It may be 
educated to a great degree of delicacy. 

As a general rule the lower orders of animals possess this sense in 
a much more acute degree than man. AVild animals will scent their 
prey or their enemies at a great distance. The keenness of scent in 
the dog is marvelous. This doubtless depends largely upon the fact 
that in animals of this class the olfactory nerve-is spread over a much 
larger space than in man. In barbarous tribes the sense seems to be 
much more highly developed than in civilized man. Humboldt, the 
great naturalist and traveler, states that the natives of Peru can dis¬ 
tinguish in the dark between different races by this sense. 

HEARING! THE AUDITORY SENSE, 

The organ of hearing consists of three parts: 1. The external ear, 
a trumpet-shapecl portion for collecting sounds; 2. The middle ear, 
or tympanum, a cavity separated from the external ear by a mem¬ 
brane resembling a drum-head in its character and use, and contain¬ 
ing several delicate bones, or ossicles, which play an important part 
in the action of the ear; 3. Tile internal ear, or labyrinth, which con¬ 
tains the terminal filaments of the auditory nerve and delicate appa¬ 
ratus connected with the reception of auditory impressions of various 
kinds. 


THE EXTERNAL EAR . 


1 K*' 
1/0 

The External Ear. —The external portion of the ear consists of a 
framework of cartilage covered with skin, having a shape somewhat 
like that of a conch-shell. It is attached to the bones of the head in 
such a manner as to be easily movable within small limits. In lower 

. animals the various movements 
admissible are produced by a 
special set of muscles for the 
purpose. In man these muscles 
are usually so slightly devel¬ 
oped that they are capable of 
producing no perceptible mo¬ 
tion, only in very exceptional 
instances. 

The outer portion of the ear 
is connected with the middle 
ear by means of a slig 
curved canal about one and 
one-fourth inches in length, 
across the bottom of which is 
stretched the outer boimdary 
of the middle ear. This canal 
is lined by a continuation of the skin of the ear, which here becomes 
very thin and sensitive, and contains glands that resemble the 
sweat glands found in other parts of the skin but which here secrete 
a waxy substance called cerumen, of an intensely bitter taste, the 
probable object of which is to guard the ear against the entrance of 
insects. Numerous fine hairs here found doubtless assist in protect¬ 
ing the ear from insects, dust, and other foreign bodies. The ear-wax 
is usually produced in small quantity, and dries and falls from the ear 
in thin scales. 

The Middle Ear.—The middle ear, or tympanum, is a cavity 
placed between the external and internal ears. Its structure is such 
as to remind one of a drum. The cavity consists of a little hollow in 
the temporal bone of the head, the outer side of which is bounded by 
a membrane which separates it from the outer ear and is known as 
the membrana tympani. Its inner side also presents an opening 
which is covered in a somewhat similar manner. The tympanum is 
not a closed cavity, as it communicates with the throat or back part 
of the nasal cavity by means of a small canal known as the Eusta¬ 
chian tube. 




Fisr. 78. The Ear. The cut shows the External 
Auditory Canal, the Middle Ear with the Ossicles, 
and the Internal ®ar. 




176 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


The Ear-Bones. —The middle ear contains in its cavity a chain of 
hones, three in number, reaching across from one side to the other. 
These delicate bony structures have received names corresponding to 
their different shapes. The first, being shaped like a mallet, is called 
the malleus; the second, from its resemblance to a blacksmith’s an- 



Fig. 79, Bonea of the Ear. a. Malleus; b. Incus; c. Stapes. 

vil, is known as the incus , which has that signification ; and the third, 
from its resemblance to a stirrup, is called the stapes. The first of 
these bones is attached by its longer part, or handle, to the drum 
membrane. All the bones are connected by delicate joints, and the 
innermost bone, the stapes, fits into an opening in the opposite wall 
of the middle ear by which it is connected with the internal ear. 

Connected with the ear-bones and the drum membrane are three 
delicate muscles, the smallest in the body, which by their action reg¬ 
ulate the movements of hese parts. Two of these are attached to 
the drum membrane, their use being to relax it and to render it tense, 
and the other to the stapes. 

The Internal Ear. —This is one of the most delicate and com¬ 
plicated mechanisms in the body. Owing to its complex structure 
and tortuous canals, it is called the labyrinth. This is the most es¬ 
sential part of the auditory apparatus. It is placed in a hollow in the 
densest part of the temporal bone. It may be divided into three 
parts: 1. The vestibule, or ante-chamber; 2. The cochlea, or snail- 

shell ; 3. The semi-circular canals. 

The vestibule, semi-circular canals, and cochlea are all filled with a 
limpid fluid. Suspended in this fluid by means of delicate bands of 
fibrous tissue placed like braces on all sides, is a membranous sac also 
filled with fluid, which corresponds in shape exactly to the form of 
the vestibule, canals, and cochlea. In the walls of this sac are found 
the terminations of the auditory nerve. 

The inner surface of the membranous sac presents a most wonder- 


THE NATURE OF SOUND. 


177 


ful structure. Lining the sac in places are cells of various shapes, 
some of which bear upon their outer surface a number of minute, but 
sharp, stiff hairs. These cells are connected with the fibres of the audi¬ 
tory nerve, and it is supposed that the fine hairs described are really 
the extreme ends of the nerve filaments, which are thus bathed in 
the limpid fluid which fills the whole internal ear. Within the sac 
are also to be found curious little chalky particles called otoliths, or 

Physiology of the 
Ear. —Having briefly 
described the structure 
of the ear, we will now 
proceed to give a con¬ 
cise account of its 
functions. The chief 
duty of this organ is 
to receive impressions 
of sound, and to note 
the differences between 
various sounds in 
force, pitch, and qual¬ 
ity. In order to comprehend how this is done we must understand 
something of the nature of sound. 

The Nature of Sound. —If a stone be dropped into the water, a 
series of circular waves extend out from the point at which the stone 
entered the water. These waves are caused by vibration of the water, 
which is produced by the motion communicated to it by the stone. 
In a similar manner, moving bodies communicate motion to the air. 
A fan, gently moved by the hand, produces waves in the air which 
may be felt, though not heard. The wings of a humming-bird or an 
insect fan the air so rapidly that waves are produced which can be 
recognized by the ear. This is what is termed sound. The range of 
sounds which can be appreciated by the human ear is very great, 
the lowest being produced by sixteen vibrations per second, and 
the highest by about forty-eight thousand vibrations per second, 
equivalent to a range of about eleven and one-half octaves. Persons 
differ in their capacity for appreciating sounds, some being able to 
hear lower sounds than others, and vice versa. It is also probable 
that lower animals differ from each other and from man in this re¬ 
spect. There is at least good reason for believing that some insects 

12 



Fig:. 80. The Internal Ear. 


178 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


are capable of making sounds which are produced by vibrations too 
rapid to be appreciated by the human ear, though they may be heard 
by the insects themselves. Some years ago an eminent European sci¬ 
entist devised an experiment by which he was able to demonstrate 
not only that vibrations of air much more rapid than can be detected 
by the human ear can be produced, but that these extremely acute vi¬ 
brations possess the same qualities as those less rapid, except that 
they cannot be perceived by the ear. 

Sounds are generally divided into musical sounds and noises, al¬ 
though this is a purely arbitrary division, as in reality no exact line 
can be drawn between these two classes of sounds. It is generally 
understood, however, that a musical sound is one that is produced by 
regular vibrations, or those which are repeated at regular intervals, 
while noises consist of irregular and discordant vibrations occurring at 
irregular intervals. 

The question sometimes discussed with so much display of argu¬ 
ment on both sides, whether there would be sound if there were no 
ears, we need hardly notice here; it will be at least sufficient to say 
that the settlement of the question wholly depends upon whether it 
is viewed from the standpoint of the physiologist or that of the phys¬ 
icist. The physiologist regards sound as the sensation produced 
upon the ear by certain vibrations of air; the physicist studies as 
sound the air-waves which produce the sensation upon the auditory 
nerve. 

How we Hear. —The operation of hearing is a very interesting 
one, and becomes quite simple when the structure of the hearing ap¬ 
paratus is well understood, since there is provided for each necessary 
part of the operation an organ or series of organs well adapted to ac¬ 
complish the work. When the air is set in motion by a rapidly vi¬ 
brating body, the sound-waves are collected by the external ear and 
concentrated in the short canal at the inner end of which the drum 
membrane is placed. The motion of the air is communicated to the 
drum membrane, and by its movement the ear bones are caused to 
oscillate, and thus transmit the vibration to the fluid which fills the 
internal ear. The vibration readily extends from the fluid in the 
vestibule and its communicating cavities to the membranous sac 
which it contains, and to the limpid fluid contained in the sac. The 
motion of this fluid causes vibration of the delicate hairs which pro¬ 
ject into it, and which, as we have seen, are undoubtedly the ends of 


USE OF THE EUSTACHIAN TUBE. 


179 


,the filaments of the nerve of hearing. Thus the external air-waves 
have been conducted to the auditory nerve, by which the impression 
is carried to the auditory center at the base of the brain, which in 
turn transmits it to the cerebrum, the seat of the intellect, and then 
the sound is recognized. 

The Musical Instrument of the Ear. —From the peculiar struct¬ 
ure of the cochlea it is believed that this part of the internal ear is 
devoted to the recognition of musical sounds, and especially to the 
pitch of sounds. There is in its structure so close a resemblance to 
the strings of a piano and the accessory apparatus that physiologists 
who have studied this part have universally remarked the analogy. 
There is even a damping arrangement, or what seems to be such, for 
the purpose of preventing the confusion of sounds when they are re¬ 
ceived in rapid succession. It was formerly supposed that the oto¬ 
liths had something to do with the production of sound, but it is now 
conceded that their action, if they have any, is not known. 

The Accommodation of Hearing. —Experiments concerning the 
action of stretched membranes with reference to sounds of various 
pitch have shown that the tension of the membrane must be varied 
for differences in pitch in order that they may be heard the best. 
For the safety of the ear it is also important that there should be 
some means of relaxing the membrane and the accessory organs so 
that injury shall not be received from very loud sounds. These needs 
are supplied by the delicate muscles of the drumhead and the stapes. 

Use of the Eustachian Tube. —The object of this canal is to 
equalize the atmospheric pressure in the drum or middle ear with 
that outside. The pressure of the atmosphere is constantly changing, 
as is indicated by the changes in the barometer; hence, if no provis¬ 
ion of this sort were made, the drum membrane would sometimes be 
pressed outward, and sometimes inward, which would greatly inter¬ 
fere with its function. This is well seen when the tube becomes 
closed up in consequence of a cold, which not infrequently happens; 
at such times the hearing is greatly obstructed. The Eustachian tube 
also comes into use when persons ascend to greed heights by going up 
in a balloon or climbing mountains; also, in the cases of persons 
who work under water by means of diving-bells. The walls of the 
tube usually lie in contact, so when changes in the internal and ex¬ 
ternal pressure are made rapidly it sometimes becomes necessary to 


180 


ANATOMY , PHYSIOLOGY , ^4iV r D HYGIENE. 


assist nature in chan^in^ the volume of air in the ears. This is read- 

o o 

ily done by a very simple means which any one can employ. After 
taking a deep breath close the lips tightly, and close the nostrils with 
the fingers by pressing them firmly together; then attempt to ex¬ 
pel the air through the nose, as in blowing the nose, but still keep it 
tightly closed. By this maneuver the Eustachian tube will be opened 
and air forced into the drum. This procedure is found to be a very 
important one with divers who descend to their work under an im¬ 
mense bell. The weight of the water causes a very great increase in 
the pressure of the air in the bell upon the drum membrane. When 
persons so engaged neglect to observe this precaution, the membrane 
is not infrequently ruptured. 

Source of the Power of Maintaining Equilibrium. —Careful 

examination of the walls of the semi-circular canals of the internal 
ear have shown that they do not contain fibres from the auditory 
nerve, and hence do not take an active part in the process of hearing. 
For some time it was a source of great perplexity to decide the func¬ 
tion of these curious structures. At last an ingenious physiologist in¬ 
stituted a series of experiments on these organs in birds; and he 
found that their function is to aid in maintaining an equilibrium, by 
giving information respecting changes in position of the head. The 
manner in which this is done is very remarkable and interesting, but 
the process is too complicated for explanation here. It may be re¬ 
marked, however, that the function is based upon the well-known 
fact that fluids contained in vessels have a strong tendency to retain 
their actual position instead of changing with every movement of the 
containing vessel. For instance, a glass containing water may be 
turned around without turning the water. The semi-circular canals 
contain a limpid fluid closely resembling water, and the three canals 
are so placed with reference to each other that the effect of any 
change of position may be noted by the change in the walls of the 
canals with reference to the fluid contained within them. This fact 
may explain the dizziness which often accompanies disease of the ear, 
the explanation being that in these cases the part of the ear is affected, 
the duty of which is to apprise the brain of the muscular actions nec¬ 
essary to maintain the equilibrium of the body. 

How Direction of Sounds is Determined.— The direction of 
sounds is probably determined by changing the position of the head 
and observing the direction in which the sound is most distinctly 


THE SENSE OF HEARING . 


181 


heard. Most lower animals can accomplish the same end in a large 
degree by changing the position of the ear by means of the muscles 
which they possess for that purpose, but which in man are not suffi¬ 
ciently developed to be of use. 

Our power to determine the direction of sounds is quite limited, as 
also is the power to determine the distance from which sounds come 
which fall upon the ear. That is, it is very difficult, often impossible, 
to distinguish between a feeble sound and one which comes from a 
distance. 

Interesting Facts about the Sense of Hearing. —Like most of 
the other senses, the ear refers its impression to the outside. It is a 
curious fact, however, that if the external ear be filled with water, 
this is no longer the case; sounds then seem to originate and to be 
located within the head. 

The ear exceeds all the other senses in acuteness of perception. If 
impressions are made upon the eye in so rapid succession as ten in a 
second, they become fused; that is, they run together and become in¬ 
distinguishable. In the case of the ear, however, sounds which follow 
one another with the rapidity of one hundred a second, as in the tick¬ 
ing of a fast-beating pendulum, are heard as distinct sounds. 

It is a common observation that some people have not “ a musical 
ear.” This is owing to the fact that they cannot readily distinguish 
one tone from another. Ears which are well trained can distinguish 
between notes which differ less than the one-hundreth part of a tone. 
Motes higher than 4000 vibrations per second are, however, distin¬ 
guished with great difficulty. 

It is a commonly known fact that the ticking of a watch may be 
heard much more distinctly when held between the teeth than when 
at the same distance from the ear and not in contact with the teeth. 
Two new instruments for the relief of deafness have recently been 
invented which are based on this principle, known as the audiphone 
and the dentaphone. By the aid of these instruments the sound¬ 
waves are conducted to the internal ear through the bones of the 
head. It is probable that the drum membrane acts as when sounds 
are received in the ordinary way when present. It is said that by 
means of these instruments persons who were born deaf have been 
made to hear. These instruments have not yet been sufficiently 
tested to make it safe to recommend them, though they are undoubt¬ 
edly useful for some cases. 


182 


ANATOMY , PHYSIOLOGY , AAD HYGIENE. 


THE EYE AND ITS FUNCTIONS, 

The organ of vision consists essentially of two parts, the optical 
instrument itself, or the eye-ball, and the accessory organs and envel¬ 
oping parts. The latter, which we will describe first, consist of the 
orbit , the eyelids , and tiie lachrymal or tear apparatus. 

The Orbit.—In or¬ 
der to protect it from 
mechanical injury, the 
eye is placed in a deep 
socket formed by the 
bones of the cranium 
and face. The edges of 
the socket project so 
much beyond the eye¬ 
ball that it will readily 
escape injury, even 
should a blow be re¬ 
ceived upon that part 
of the face, unless from a small instrument aimed directly at the eye. 
The overhanging brow is covered with short hairs so arranged as to 
conduct away the perspiration when a person is sweating freely, 
and prevent its entering the eye. An opening in the bottom of this 
bony socket gives entrance to the nerve of sight, which passes into the 
eye-ball. In the back part of the orbit is to be found a large amount 
of fatty tissue, which forms a sort of cushion for the eye-ball to pro¬ 
tect it from any injury from jar. 

The Eyelids .—The eye is protected in front by two movable cur¬ 
tains, the eyelids, the upper of which is the larger and moves very 
freely, the lower being short and having little motion. The lids are 
chiefly composed of skin, lined with a delicate mucous membrane 
known as the conjunctiva. The edges of the lids present a row of 
fine hairs, the eyelashes, which protect the eye from dust, and when 
the lids are partially closed, diminish the amount of light that may 
enter the eye. Just within the row of eyelashes may be seen a line 
of delicate points which are the mouths of ducts leading from minute 
sebaceous glands which secrete an oily substance and pour it out upon 
the edge of the lids, by means of which they are prevented from ad- 



Figr. 81. The Eye, (showing at its inner border the appara¬ 
tus for removing the tears from the eye. 









THE LACHRYMAL APPARATUS. 


183 


hering together during sleep. By the same means the lachrymal 
fluid which lubricates the eye is prevented from overflowing upon the 
cheek. 



The Lachrymal 
Apparatus. — Just 
within the outer and 
upper border of the 
orbit is placed a lit¬ 
tle gland, the func¬ 
tion of which is to 
secrete a limpid, lu¬ 
bricating fluid, the 
lachrymal fluid, or 
tears, from which 
fact it is called the 
lachrymal gland. 

The fluid formed 
flows down a n d 
across the eye, moist¬ 
ening its whole anterior surface, and is drained off at the lower and 
internal angle of the eye by the nasal duct, a canal which leads to 
the nose. This fluid protects the eye both by washing away impu¬ 
rities and by keeping it transparent. When the cornea, or trans¬ 
parent part of the eye, becomes dry, it loses its lustre and becomes 
partially opaque. This is well seen in fishes when they have been 
removed from the water for some time. They have no lachrymal 
apparatus, since their natural element, the water in which they swim, 
answers the same purpose. 

In the edge of each lid, at the inner end, are little openings 
through which the tears are drained off into the nasal duct and so 
conveyed to the nose. These can be seen in the lower lids by draw¬ 
ing them downward and forward. 

o 


Fig 1 . 82. The Glandular Apparatus of the Eye; 7. Lachrymal 
Gland. 8, 9, 10, Ducts. 11. Openings of ducts on inner border of 
upper lid; 6. Glands for lubricating edges of eyelids. 


The secretion of the lachrymal fluid is constant, but only in sufficient 
quantity for the purpose of lubricating the eye, except when the mind 
is laboring under the influence of some strong emotion, when it is poured 
out in such quantities that it escapes over the lids upon the cheek in 
tears. Irritating substances in the eye, a harsh, dry wind, and irritating 
vapors, produce the same effect. 








184 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


The Eye-Ball .—The ball of the eye, which is the essential instru¬ 
ment of sight, in many respects resembles the camera of the photo¬ 
grapher, as will be seen from the description. The eye-ball is not per¬ 
fectly spherical in shape, though approaching the form of a globe. Its 
average diameter is about an inch. It is composed, essentially, of three 
investing membranes or coats, called tunics, and three transparent me¬ 
dia inclosed, called humors. 



"Fig. 83. Vertical Section of the Eye-Ball. a. Eyelashes; d. Eyelids; 
i. Cornea; V. Aqueous Humor; t. Crystalline Lens; s. Vitreous Humor; 

m. Iris; o. Retina. 


The outermost tunic is called the sclerotic. It is a tough, fibrous 
coat, and forms what is known as the white of the eye. It covers the 
whole eye-ball with the exception of a small circular portion which is 
covered by a peculiar, horn-like, transparent structure which is a con¬ 
tinuation of the sclerotic, and is called the cornea. It is this which 
forms the lustrous portion of the eye, through which its color is seen. 
The cornea acts as a window to the interior of the eye. 

Within the sclerotic is another tunic, the choroid, which is a delicate 
membrane filled with blood-vessels to nourish the eye, and lined upon 
the inside with a layer of dark, nearly black, coloring matter. The 
choroid is also absent in front, ending at the margin of the cornea ; but 
it is con turned by a circular curtain called— 

























































THE STRUCTURE OF THE IRIS. 


185 


The Iris. —This delicate structure is what gives to the eye its color. 
Its outer side is in different persons a great variety of colors, being 
brown, blue, gray, hazel, and many other shades. Its center is pierced 
by an opening called the pupil. Its back side is covered, like the choroid, 
with a layer of black pigment, the object of which is the same as that 
had in view by the manufacturer of telescopes and microscopes when lie 
covers with a coat of black paint the inside of his instruments, viz., the 
absorption of wandering rays of light, and the prevention of reflection 
in the e} 7 e, which would occasion confusion of vision. In albinos 
these dark cells are wanting, in consequence of which they suffer from 
imperfect vision. The same is true of albinos among lower animals, as 
white elephants, white rabbits, etc. In blue and gray eyes the pigment 
cells are less abundant than in black and brown,-being found only on 
the back side of the iris, while in black and brown eyes pigment cells 
are found upon both sides and in its substance. Dark eyes are usually 
associated with dark features on account of the general greater abun¬ 
dance of pigment throughout the body. 

A careful examination of the iris with the microscope shows that it 
is made of two sets of fibres, one of which radiates from the center to¬ 
ward the circumference, while the other is arranged circularly. The 
circular fibres, by contracting, make the opening through the ills 
smaller, while the radiating fibres, by contracting, make it larger. Thus 
the size of the pupil is regulated according to the amount of light which 
is needed in the eye for the purposes of vision, or which may be tolerated 
without injury to its delicate structures. The action of the iris of the 
cat can be very easily seen. When exposed to a bright light, the pupil 
becomes very small; but when taken into a room where there is little 
light, it becomes greatly dilated. It is in part the great power of dila¬ 
tion of the pupil which enables the cat and the owl to see well where the 
lio'ht is insufficient for most other animals and human beings. When 
we enter a darkened room we cannot see distinctly for some minutes, 
as is also the case when we are suddenly brought into the presence of a 
bright light. This is owing to the fact that time is required for the 
iris to accommodate the size of the pupil to the amount of light fur¬ 
nished. When the variation in the intensity of the light is but slight, as 
is ordinarily the case, no perceptible time is required; but a longer period 
is necessary when the difference is great. Every person has experienced 
temporary inability to see objects distinctly after looking at the sun for 
a few seconds steadily. 


180 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


Certain drugs possess the power to cause dilatation of the pupil by 
paralyzing its muscular fibres. Belladonna, one of the chief of these, 
derives its name, which signifies beautiful lady, from the fact that it has 
been much used to cause dilatation of the pupil to add brilliance to the 
eyes. Death has not infrequently been occasioned in this way. 

The Ciliary Muscle. —Between the sclerotic and the choroid, 
around the edge of the cornea, is another curious little muscle, known 
as the ciliary muscle, the use of which will be seen presently. 

The Retina. —This constitutes the third and inner coat of the eye. 
It is made up almost wholly of the end filaments of the optic nerve, 
which enters the ball of the eye at the back side and spreads out into a 
thin membrane to form the retina. It contains many delicate and cu¬ 
rious structures connected with vision, but too complicated for explana¬ 
tion in a popular treatise like this. The retina is sensitive to no im¬ 
pressions but those produced by light. That is, if otherwise stimulated, 
it produces only the sensation of light. 

The Crystalline Lens. —This is the middle one of the three trans¬ 
parent media of the eye. It is placed in the eye just behind the iris, so 
that the center of the pupil is just opposite its center. Its shape, as will 
be seen reference to Fig. 83, is like that of a convex lens or burn¬ 
ing-glass. It is of quite firm consistency, feeling to the touch almost as 
hard as cartilage. It is held in place by means of a delicate sac or cap¬ 
sule which incloses it and is attached by its circumference to the cho¬ 
roid coat just behind the iris. Its thickness is about one-fourth of an 
inch. The lens possesses great transparency in health, but sometimes, 
especially in old age, it becomes opaque, occasioning the disease known 
as cataract. Attached to the choroid behind the border of the capsule 
of the lens is the ciliary muscle previously described. 

TliO Aqueous Humor. —This is a watery fluid contained in the 
small space between the lens and the cornea in front. The free inner 
edge of the iris floats in the aqueous humor. It is this limpid fluid 
which escapes when the eye is punctured by a sharp instrument. 

The Yitreous Humor. —Behind the crystalline lens, and filling the 
greater part of the eye-ball, is the vitreous humor, so called on account 
of its imagined resemblance to melted glass. This structure is also very 
transparent. It constitutes about two-thirds of the eye-ball. The ret¬ 
ina, the inner tunic of the eye, lies in close contact with it. 

The Physiology of the Eye .—In order to understand the manner 
in which the mechanism of the eye operates in producing vision, we must 


PROPERTIES OF LIGHT. 


187 


first learn something of the nature of light, that with which the eye has 
to deal. The generally accepted theory of light is what is known as 
the undulatory theory, which supposes that all space is filled with a sub¬ 
tile medium known as ether, and that light is simply the waves, or vi¬ 
brations, or undulations, of this ether, just as sound is the result of the 
vibrations of air. These vibrations are caused by luminous bodies, as 
the sun and stars, and by all substances undergoing combustion. 

Properties of Light. —Objects which allow waves of light to pass 
through them are called transparent or translucent according to the 
readiness with which they allow the passage of light. No substance 
known is perfectly transparent. Even the atmosphere and the purest 
water are opaque in some degree. 

Light-waves travel in straight lines, radiating from their source. 
Those which come from a great distance vary so little in direction that 
they are considered as parallel. 

Properties of Lenses.— 

Fig. 84 illustrates the prop¬ 
erty of a lens to change the 
direction of rays of light. 

The rays of light which 
pass from the arrow at the 
left of the lens have their 
course changed so that they 
cross at a point upon the right of it and form an image of the ar¬ 
row inverted. This property of a lens may be readily seen by ex¬ 
periment with a burning-glass or a pair of convex spectacles of con¬ 
siderable magnifying power. 

How He See .—In studying the use of the eye in vision, it must 
be considered first as an optical instrument. As we have already 
seen, it contains a lens, the shape of which is similar to artificial 
lenses, and the effect of which in changing the direction of rays of 
light is precisely the same. The cornea, having a convex surface, also 
acts as a lens, so that there are virtually two lenses in the eye. 
When rays of light from an object fall upon the cornea they pass 
through it and on to the crystalline lens with a different direction 
from that in which they were received, being brought nearer together, 
or made to converge. Passing on to the lens they are by it made to 
converge still more, so that they cross just behind the lens and form 
an image, reduced in size and inverted, upon the retina. This may be 



Fig:. 84. Diagram showing the Optical Properties of 

Lenses. 









188 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


seen in the eye of an ox taken from the animal immediately after it 
is killed. By removing the outer coverings at the back part with 
great care, leaving the retina in place, and then placing it in such a 
position as to receive a strong light from some object, the object may 
be seen pictured upon the retina upside down. 

The delicate nerve cells and filaments which form the retina con¬ 
vey the impressions thus made upon them to the base of the brain to 
the nerve center having charge of sight, whence they are communi¬ 
cated to the cerebrum, and the sensation of sight is produced, or the 
impressions recognized by the brain. Any sort of irritation of the 
retina or optic nerve will occasion the sensation of light, whether it 
be mechanical, or electrical by means of a battery. 

Accommodation of the Eye.—An opera-glass, when used for view¬ 
ing objects at different distances, must be adjusted in order to give 
distinct images of the objects viewed. If turned upon a distant object 
when rightly adjusted to make a near object distinct, the distant 
object will appear blurred and indistinct, if seen at all. Like the 
opera-glass, the telescope, and other similar optical instruments, the 
eye has an adjusting apparatus. The use of this adjusting mechanism 
is what is known as accommodation. By its use the healthy eye can 
be so adjusted as to see with the greatest possible degree of distinct¬ 
ness objects at the extreme limits of vision, as well as objects very 
near to the eye. This power differs with different persons in accu¬ 
racy and in the extent of its limits. A near-sighted person has a very 
small range of accommodating power, that is, he can see clearly only 
objects which are within narrow limits of distance. 

A very simple experiment will make clear to all what is meant by 
accommodation. Place in a strip of wood two or three feet long, two 
pins in range with each other, one at either end of the strip. Now 
hold the strip out horizontally at about the level of the eye, with one 
end toward the eye. By this arrangement one of the pins will be 
two or three feet farther from the eye than the other. Now look at 
the pin nearest the eye. While doing so it will be observed that an 
indistinct view is also obtained of the pin at the other end, and that 
it looks blurred. Then look sharp at the pin at the farther end. The 
pin nearest the eye will now appear blurred and indistinct. This is 
because the eye cannot accommodate itself to more than one distance 
at a time. Another interesting experiment shows the same thing in 
a different way. Make in a card-board two small holes about the dis- 


VISUAL JUDGMENTS. 


189 


tance apart shown in Fig. 85, in horizontal line with each other. 
Place the card very near to the eye, and hold vertically in the fingers 
a needle at a distance of eight or ten inches from the eye. When 

the eye is fixed in¬ 
tently upon the nee¬ 
dle, it is seen clearly; 
but if the attention 
be directed to an 
object either farther 
away or nearer by 
than the needle, it 
will appear indistinct 
and also double. If 
moved near enough 
to the eye, it will ap¬ 
pear double continually. The nearest point at which it appears single 
is the near limit of accommodation. 

Accommodation is accomplished by the action of the ciliary mus¬ 
cle, by means of which the form of the lens, and hence its refracting 
power, is changed, as shown in Fig. 86. 

Yisual Judgments. —With the exception of the auditory sense 
and the sense of sight, ail others of the senses require for their excita¬ 
tion the actual contact of something. No other sense gives us so 
much and such 
varied information 
respecting external 
things as the eye; 
yet a careful study 
of the knowledge 
thus gained shows 
us that the eye is 
very greatly aided 
by the other senses. 

Indeed, with only 
the sense of sight, 
we should be very 
badly off indeed, 
and the function of sight would render us but little service. In 
making visual judgments, or forming opinions which seem to be 



Fig. 80. At the risht of the vertical line, the lens, a a, is shown 
flattened, as when adjusted for seeing at a distance; on the left, the 
lens is thickened, as in near-sighted persons and when examining 
near objects. 




• • 


Fig-, v 5. 











190 


ANATOMY, riJYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


based upon the impressions received through the eye, we never take 
into account our dependence upon other senses, because we are 
scarcely able to separate them under ordinary circumstances. 

Judgment of Distance and Size. —The power to judge of dis¬ 
tance is evidently acquired. The little child reaches out its hand for 
the moon, undoubtedly supposing it to be within easy reach. A 
landsman at sea for the first time can form no correct estimate of dis¬ 
tance. The same is true of a person accustomed to live in a hilly or 
mountainous section when he first visits a prairie country. The judg¬ 
ment of distance is formed partly by the combined use of the two 
eyes,—one serving as a means of correcting the other,—by the 
amount of muscular effort required to accommodate the eye to see the 
objects clearly, and by the relative size of objects with which we are 
familiar. For instance, we are familiar with the size of a man or a 
horse; if we see a man or a horse some distance away, we judge some¬ 
thing of the distance by the apparent size. If we were to look 
through a reversed telescope, which makes everything look small, we 
should have the same impression, that of a person a long distance off, 
even though he might be very close by. The advantage of using 
both eyes in judging of distance is well appreciated by one who at¬ 
tempts to thread a needle with one eye closed. 

We are aided in judging of the size of an object by a knowledge 
of its distance. We can form no notion of the size of the moon, be¬ 
cause we can form no visual estimate of its distance, and vice versa. 

Judgment of Solidity. —We are enabled to form an opinion re¬ 
specting the solidity of an object by two means; first, by means of the 
lights and shades of its surface, and second, by the conjoined use of 
the two eyes, which enable us to see more than half of a sphere, 
owing to the difference in position of the two eyes. 

It is thus evident that we do not form opinions respecting objects 
exactly as we see them, but as the impressions of sight are corrected 
by comparison with each other and with the impressions received 
through the other senses. 

Curious Facts about tlie Sense of Sight. —There are many 
curious facts about sight well worth mentioning, only a few of which 
we have room to consider. First we may mention that although 
every one is familiar with the fact that color as well as simple light 
may be appreciated by the eye, no explanation has yet been found for 
the power to distinguish color. The color of objects is due to the fact 



AFTER-IMAGES. 


191 


that light is compound, and that some objects have the power to ab¬ 
sorb some portions of the constituent elements of light and reflect 
others, the elements reflected determining the color. For example, an 
object reflecting red rays only, is red; one reflecting blue only, is blue, 
etc. It was formerly supposed that red, yellow, and blue were the 
primary colors, or color sensations; but an eminent scientist has re¬ 
cently shown that the old view is incorrect, and that the primary 
color sensations are red, green, and violet. When all three of these 
colors fall upon the retina at once, white or colorless light is produced. 
By their combination in various proportions all other color sensations 
may be produced. White may also be produced by combining the 
following colors: red and blue-green; orange and blue ; yellow and 
indigo-blue; green-yellow and violet; purple and green. 

After-Images. —After looking at a bright object, as the sun, for a 
few seconds, and then closing the eyes, the image formed on the retina 
will persist for some time. The same phenomenon may be noticed in the 
morning when the retina is rested. If upon first waking a person looks 
at the window, he may, upon closing his eyes, still retain the image 
with all the distinctness with which the objects viewed were seen when 
the eyes were open, the same form, color, and other visual properties 
being accurately preserved. Such linages as these are known as posi¬ 
tive after-images. A more usual form of after-image is that "which is 
produced by looking upon a white ground after the eye has been for 
some time steadfastly fixed upon some dark or colored object. If a per¬ 
son has been looking at a white spot upon a dark ground, upon looking 
at a white ground, as the wall, he will see a dark spot of the same size 
and form as the light spot. When the spot is of a red color, the image 
seen on the white ground will be greenish-blue, which is the comple¬ 
ment of red. Orange produces blue; green, pink ; yellow, blue; etc. 
The explanation is that the part of the retina upon which the im¬ 
age of the object is formed becomes weary with receiving the particular 
sensation, and consequently while the rest of the retina which is fresh 
receives a sensation corresponding to the color of the object viewed, the 
tired spot responds to but a part of the rays, and so shows a different 
color, really making a physiological decomposition of the rays of light. 
Images of this sort are called negative. 

The Blind Spot. —The portion of the retina which possesses most 
acute vision is the visual center, which is a little to one side of the point 
at which the optic nerve enters the eye. The point of entrance of the 


192 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE . 


optic nerve is wholly insensitive to visual impressions, as there are at 
this point none of the terminal elements of the optic nerve, which alone 
possess the power of receiving impressions. The existence of this insen¬ 
sitive portion of the retina, commonly termed “ the blind spot,” can be 
easily shown by a simple experiment with Fig. 87. Holding the book 



Fig-. 87. 


squarely before the face and so that the figure will be on a level with 
the eyes, place the hand over the left eye, and with the right eye look 
steadily at the small cross at the left end of the figure. Now place the 
book at a distance of about four inches from the eye. Both the cross 
and the round white spot will be distinctly visible; but as the book is 
moved from the face the white spot will disappear at a distance of six 
to eight inches. With a little care any one can perform the experiment. 
Another way of showing the same fact without the figure is this: Pin 
two cards upon the wall about two feet apart, and on a level with the 
eyes. Now close the left eye and look at the left card with the right eye, 
or vice versa. Both cards will be visible, the right one indistinctly, of 
course. Keeping the right ej^e fixed upon the left card, walk backward. 
At a distance of six to eight feet from the cards the right one will 
vanish. 

Contrast. —A white stripe placed between two black stripes looks 
much whiter at its edges than in the middle, which may even look a 
little dull in contrast with the edges, though the color is uniform. A 
small sheet of gray paper placed in the middle of a larger sheet of green 
paper and covered with a sheet of thin tissue paper, appears of a pink 
color, which is complementary to green. 



TEE LAW OF USE AND ABUSE . 


193 


HYGIENE OF THE SPECIAL SENSES, 

The Law of Use and Abuse. —Sensation is due to change of state. 
If the external agents which make impressions upon our organs of sense 
remained always in the same relation to them, we should possess sensi¬ 
bility or sensation but a very brief space of time. Our sensations arise 
from the constant changes in the relations of surrounding objects to our 
organs of sense. For example, an object laid upon the hand resting upon 
a table is at first appreciated by the sense of weight or pressure. The 
first moment of contact the most intense sensation is experienced; after 
this the impression gradually diminishes, until finally the object is no 
longer felt at all unless the hand is moved. If the hand be placed in 
water which the sense of temperature at first appreciates as warm, it 
very soon loses the sensation of contact with water altogether unless the 
hand is stirred. Flavors at first very marked, when the sapid substance 
is held some time in the mouth become less intense. The most sensitive 
nose may become so accustomed to foul odors that it can no longer ap¬ 
preciate them. This is experienced by every person who leaves a close 
room for a few minutes and walks in the pure air. Upon returning, the 
close, fusty air is almost intolerable; but in a few minutes it is no longer 
noticed. Loud sounds are no longer heard by ears constantly accus¬ 
tomed to them unless they are varied, or the attention is especially 
called to them. An object continually gazed at finally disappears 
from view. 

Thus all sensation depends upon constant change of state. Frt>m 
this fact we may deduce the general law relating alike to all the senses, 
that frequent change is essential. Too long use of any of the senses 
in any particular way should be avoided, as by this means their sen¬ 
sibility is blunted. 

Evils of Excessive Stimulation of the Senses. —Excessive stim¬ 
ulation of any sense is felt as pain, when extreme in degree. A sensa¬ 
tion of warmth is pleasurable, but neither extreme cold nor extreme 
heat is felt as intense heat or cold, but as pain. Very loud sounds, as 
the noise of an explosion, are avoided as painful to the ear. Moderate 
light is grateful to the eye, but an intense light, as that of the sun, 
causes pain. Pain is a faithful sentinel of danger; and so, as might be 
supposed, these intense stimulations of the nerves of sense are harmful, 
and should always be avoided when possible. When experienced, they 
13 


194 


ANATOMY , PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


rapidly deteriorate the sensitiveness of the organ involved. A tongue 
accustomed to the strong flavors of highly seasoned food, ceases to ap¬ 
preciate the delicate flavors which naturally pertain to most articles 
of diet in a less artificial condition. Hence the evil of condiments. 
Smoking, tobacco-chewing, tea-tasting, and the excessive use of tea 
and coffee, as well as the use of strong alcoholic liquors, deteriorate 
and often almost wholly obliterate the sense of taste. 

The sense of smell is often entirely lost in consequence of the vile 
habit of snuff-taking. The habit sometimes acquired by smokers, of 
expelling tobacco smoke through the nose, ruins the delicate sense of 
smell. The nerves of this sense, being more slightly protected than 
any other, are very easily injured. Nasal catarrh also obliterates the 
sense of smell in many cases. 

When we consider the great importance of most of the special 
senses, and the great value of all, it is indeed surprising that so little 
pains is taken to preserve them. Too often their value is not appre¬ 
ciated until they have been ruthlessly squandered by careless habits, 
and are in many cases irrecoverable. On account of their great im¬ 
portance, we shall devote a little space to the special consideration of 
the senses of sight and hearing. 

HYGIENE OF THE EYE. 

Being one of the most delicate of all the organs of sense, the eye 
is exceedingly liable to injury by improper use or exposure. Dr. Ed¬ 
ward G. Loring, an eminent oculist of New York City, makes the 
following excellent remarks on this subject :— 

Common Neglect of the Eye. —“Whatever an ounce of preven¬ 
tion may be to other members of the body, it certainly is worth many 
pounds of cure to the eye. Like a chronometer watch, this delicate 
organ will stand almost any amount of use, but when once thrown 
off its balance, it can very rarely be brought back to its original per¬ 
fection of action, or, if it is, it becomes ever after liable to a return of 
disability of function or the seat of actual disease. One would have 
supposed from this fact, and from the fact that modern civilization 
has imposed upon the eye an ever-increasing amount of strain, both 
as to the actual quantity of work done and the constantly increasing 
brilliancy and duration of the illumination under which it is per¬ 
formed, that the greatest pains would have been exercised in main¬ 
taining the organ in a condition of health, and the greatest care and 


TOBACCO A CAUSE OF EYE DISEASE. 


195 


solicitude used in its treatment when diseased. And yet it is safe to 
say that there is no other organ in the. body the welfare of which is- so 
persistently neglected as the eye. • 

“ I have known fond and doting mothers to take their children of 
four or five years of age to have their first teeth filled, instead of hav¬ 
ing them extracted, so that the jaw might not suffer in its due devel¬ 
opment, and become in later years contracted; while the eye, the most 
intellectual, the most apprehensive, and the most discriminating, of all 
our organs, receives not even a passing thought, much less an exam¬ 
ination. It never seems to occur to the parents that the principal 
agent in a child’s education is the eye; that through it it gains not 
dnly its sense of the methods and ways of existence of others, but 
even the means for the maintenance of its own; nor does it occur to 
the parents for an instant that many of the mental as well as bod¬ 
ily attributes of a growing child are fashioned, even if they are not 
created, by the condition of the eye alone. 

“ A child is put to school without the slightest inquiry on the part 
of the parent, and much less on the part of a teacher, whether it sees 
objects sharply and well defined, or indistinctly and distorted; whether 
it be near-sighted or far-sighted; whether it sees with one or two 
eyes; or finally, if it does see clearly and distinctly, whether it is not 
using a quantity of nervous force sufficient after a time not only to 
exhaust the energy of the visual organ, but of the nervous system at 
large.” 

Tobacco a Cause of Eye Disease. —The numerous observations 
on the subject leave no room to doubt that the use of tobacco is a po¬ 
tent cause of disease of the eye. In fact, instances of nearly every 
functional disease of the eye have been traced to the use of this power¬ 
ful poison. Amaurosis, and total blindness from degeneration of the 
optic nerve, have also been traced to this cause. Decent observations 
point to tobacco and alcohol as the great causes of color-blindness, or 
Daltonism, which accounts for the fact that it is very much more com¬ 
mon in men than in women. 

Effects of Poor Light. —The use of poor light, and especially the 
improper construction of school-rooms in relation to light, is a most 
potent cause of diseases of the eye. Careful examinations of large 
numbers of students in all grades have shown that defects of sight in¬ 
crease in a rapid ratio from the lowest grades to the highest, students 
in the higher classes in colleges and universities suffering to a most 
astonishing and alarming extent. 


196 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

Attention should be given to the eyesight of children at an early 
age, and especially before they are sent to school, or before a profes¬ 
sion or trade is chosen for them. If the sight is found to be weak 
or otherwise defective, they should not be compelled to close confine¬ 
ment with books, and should be put to learn some trade or engage in 
some business which will not require close attention of the eye. An 
eminent New York oculist has recently urged the enactment of a 
law requiring that all children be submitted to an examination of 
the eyes before being granted admission to the public schools. If 
this plan should be adopted, no doubt many cases of disease of the 
eye which become serious by neglect, might be cured by the early 
discovery which would be thus made. 

A Cause of Near-Sightedness. —One of the recognized causes of 
near-sightedness is looking at near objects for too long a time with¬ 
out relieving the eye. The optical apparatus is, by a curious mechan¬ 
ism provided by nature, constantly adapted to the varying distances 
at which objects are viewed when the eyes are being employed in look¬ 
ing about at various objects. If near objects are looked at too long 
a time, the result will be that the particular adjustment for short dis¬ 
tances will become a more or less permanent condition. It is in this 
way that watch-makers, microscopists, proof-readers, compositors, 
writers, book-keepers, and especially students, are so liable to this 
disease of the eye. It should be recognized that a near-sighted eye 
is really a diseased eye. The idea held by many persons that an eye 
which has this peculiarity is an uncommonly strong one is an error. 
Short-sight is an evidence of weakness and disease rather than of 
strength. 

The following very sensible remarks referring to the prevention 
of this defect in school-children we quote from the Educational 
Weekly :— 

“ Encourage the pupil to look off the book frequently, to change 
the focus of sight by regarding some distant object. It is not enough 
to look around vaguely; the eye must be directed to something which 
is to be clearly seen, like a picture or a motto upon the wall, or a bit 
of decoration. The greatest damage to the eyes of students is the 
protracted effort to focus the printed page. It was simply barbarous, 
the way we used to be “ waked ” in school, when we looked off the 
book. It is easy for a teacher to know the difference between the 
resting of the eye and the idle gazing around that cannot be allowed. 


RULES FOR PRESERVING THE EYESIGHT. 197 

I regard this as most important, and the disregard of it as most pro¬ 
lific of trouble.” 

The following excellent rules for preserving the health of the eyes 
have been chiefly compiled from the best authorities on the subject:— 

1. Never use the eyes when they are tired or painful, nor with an 
insufficient or a dazzling light. Lamps should be shaded. 

2. The light should fall upon the object viewed from over the left 
shoulder, if possible; it should never come from in front. 

3. The room should be moderately cool, and the feet should be 
warm. There should be nothing tight about the neck. 

4. Hold the object squarely before the eyes, and at just the proper 
distance. Holding it too near produces near-sightedness. Fifteen 
inches is the usual distance. 

5. Never read on the cars, when riding in a wagon or street-car, 
nor when lying down. Serious disease is produced by these practices. 

G. Do not use the eyes for any delicate work, reading, or writing, 
by lamp-light, before breakfast. 

7 . Avoid much use of the eyes in reading when just recovering 
from illness. 

8. Never play tricks with the eyes, as squinting or rolling them. 

9. If the eyes are near-sighted or far-sighted, procure proper 
glasses at once. If common print must be held nearer than fifteen 
inches to the eye for distinct vision, the person is near-sighted. If it 
is required to be held two or three feet from the eye for clear sight, 
the person is far-sighted. 

10. A near-sighted person should not read with the glasses which en¬ 
able him to see distant objects clearly. A person who has long sight 
should not attempt to see at a distance with the glasses which enable 
him to read. 

11. Colored glasses (blue are the best) may be worn when the eye is 
pained by snow or sunlight, or by a dazzling fire or lamp light. Avoid 
their continued use. 

12. Never patronize traveling venders of spectacles. 

13. Rest the eyes at short intervals when severely taxing them, ex¬ 
ercising the lungs vigorously at the same time. Tired eyes may often 
be refreshed by bathing in cool water, or water as hot as can be borne. 

14. Avoid sudden exposure of the eye to a bright light, as when 
first waking from sleep. Study by lamp-light before breakfast is par¬ 
ticularly injurious on this account. 


198 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


15. Defective ventilation, unequal heating,—causing cold, feet and 
congestion of the head,—and bad food, causing impure and impoverished 
blood, are serious causes of diseases of the eye. 

16. Popular eye-washes, and various ointments, salves, etc., prepared 
according to popular recipes, or sold by quacks, should never be used. 

17. Upon the discovery of any defect in the sight, consult a compe¬ 
tent physician (not a traveling quack) at once, as serious disease may be 
saved by timely advice or treatment. 

HYGIENE OF THE EARS. 

The number of people who suffer with defects of hearing in greater 
or less degree is almost if not quite as great as those who suffer with 
defective eyesight. The ears are neglected as much as the eyes ; but, 
fortunately, slight impairment of hearing is not accompanied by any¬ 
thing like so great inconvenience or loss as an equal degree of impair¬ 
ment of vision. From inattention, neglect, and abuse, the ears become 
seriously or hopelessly diseased, when a little timely attention or warn¬ 
ing might have saved them. It should be mentioned in this connection 
that diseases of the ear are to be avoided not only on their own ac¬ 
count, but on account of the fact that owing to the close proximity of 
the organ to the brain, and its intimate connection with the bones of 
the skull, serious and even fatal disease not infrequently results from 
affections of this organ. We will call attention to some of the most 
important points connected with the hygiene of the ear. 

Danger of Meddling with the Ears. —The common habit of 
picking at the ears to remove the wax or cerumen which accumulates in 
them, is very injurious. Especially bad is the use of ear-picks or spoons. 
Borinout the ear with the twisted corner of a towel is a most absurd 
as well as inj urious practice, since it not only does not remove more 
than a very small portion of wax, but crowds the balance down into 
the bottom of the canal, against the delicate membrane of the drum. Ex¬ 
cept in cases of disease, ear-wax seldom requires removal, as nature has 
provided for this. When the ears are let alone, as they should be, the 
wax dries and scales off in thin flakes, which drop from the ear sponta¬ 
neously. It is only in cases of disease that the wax accumulates to such 
an extent as to be detrimental. If there is itching of the ears, it is a 
sign of disease; and the more they are irritated by picking or cleaning, 
the worse the evil will become. The more assiduous the attempts to 
keep the ears free from wax, the greater will be the accumulation, as 


DANGER OF BOXING THE EARS . 


199 


the secretion is increased by the mechanical irritation. Well-mean¬ 
ing mothers often do their children a great amount of harm by at¬ 
tempts to keep their ears free from what nature designed as a protec¬ 
tion. The protest which children always make to having their ears 
bored out with towels and scrubbed with soap and water inside as well 
as outside, is a perfectly natural and entirely proper resentment of the 
outrage. The outer parts of the ear may very properly be washed as 
often as desired, provided they are always wiped dry; but nothing 
should ever be introduced into the canal of the ear unless made nec¬ 
essary by disease or accident. 

Putting things in the ear is a practice sometimes acquired by chil¬ 
dren, and often irreparable injury is thereby done. Children should be 
carefully w T atched, and early taught to let the ear alone. Beans, kernels 
of rice, wheat, and corn, and a great variety of small objects, have been 
removed from the ears of children by surgeons to whom they have been 
taken for treatment for deafness. Inflammation is not infrequently 
set up by this means, which may occasion permanent loss of hearing. 
Throwing at each other wheat, sand, and other small objects, should be 
strictly forbidden children, and should never be practiced by any one. 
We recently met a gentleman whose hearing in one ear was wholly de¬ 
stroyed when a child by having lodged in his ear a kernel of wheat 
from a handful thrown at him by a playmate. It was never extracted, 
and the inflammation excited caused a permanent loss of hearing. 

Danger of Boxing the Ears. —The common practice of cuffing 
the ears is not only cruel but dangerous. The violent forcing of air into 
the ear in this manner has often caused rupture of the delicate drum mem¬ 
brane. Sometimes serious inflammation is occasioned; and in one case 
which we have in mind a child died from the effects of a cuff upon the 
ear received at school. Both parents and teachers often box or cuff the 
ears of children for inattention, when it will be found in a large num¬ 
ber of cases in which a child is apparently inattentive that the difficulty 
is hardness of hearing, which will of course be made worse instead of 
being remedied by the punishment inflicted. It should be understood 
and remembered that the hearing of children is often temporarily im¬ 
paired by various causes, particularly by colds and attacks of “earache,” 
and also that in some forms of deafness a person may be quite hard of 
hearing when not expecting to be spoken to and hence not giving at¬ 
tention, and yet hear very well when listening. Before a child who 
seems to be habitually inattentive is punished for the supposed fault, his 


200 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


ears should both be carefully tested by trying each one alone with a 
watch, or by speaking in a moderate tone of voice at different distances. 

Taking Cold in the Ears. —The form of ear disease known as 
throat deafness is that in which the impairment of hearing is really due 
to disease of the throat, which is most commonly caused by taking cold. 
The thickness of hearing due to a common cold in the head is occasioned 
by the thickening of the mucous membrane about the openings of the 
Eustachian tubes in the throat. This usually passes away in a short 
time; but in cases of catarrh, especially post-nasal and pharyngeal catarrh, 
the condition may become permanent; and the local disease may extend 
up into the canal and even to the ear itself, occasioning very great in¬ 
jury to the ear. 

It ought to be generally known, too, that the very common affection 
called earache is really a matter of quite serious character, being inflam¬ 
mation of the middle ear, or drum of the ear. Treatment should be 
prompt, and care should be taken to prevent recurrences, as the hearing 
may be thereby permanently injured. Full directions for treatment 
are given in the proper place. 

Exposures of the Ears. —Both extremes should be avoided in the 
case of the ears. Too much protection makes them delicate and easily 
disturbed by the occasional exposures to which they must be subjected. 
It is probably for this reason that women are more liable than men to 
suffer with acute inflammation of the ear, as has been observed by 
some aurists. People who always have their ears covered or pro¬ 
tected by plugs of cotton, are quite sure to be always troubled with 
their ears. The ears should be accustomed to exposure, and only pro¬ 
tected when subjected to some unusual exposure, as when riding a 
long distance in a cold wind. The use of cotton in the ears is at- 
tended by some risk, being often productive of harm, as cotton placed 
in the ear is not infrequently forgotten, being left in place, and even 
pushed farther into the ear by successive plugs. As many as three 
pellets of cotton which had been successively inserted in this way 
have been removed by an aural surgeon. When thus retained, wax 
accumulates about the cotton, and thus may occasion mechanical ob¬ 
struction to hearing, and serious inflammation. 

Cold water should never be introduced into the ear. When in¬ 
jected with a syringe, and even when poured in, it causes giddiness, 
and may give rise to inflammation. Boys often cause an inflamma¬ 
tion of the ear by “ going in swimming ” or ducking the head in wa- 


EXPOSURE OF THE EARS. 


201 


ter. By submergence of the head the external canals are filled with 
water, which is usually of a temperature lower than that of the blood, 
which causes congestion and may occasion inflammation. Early deaf¬ 
ness is often produced in this way. Those who own dogs which are 
accustomed to go into the "water much, or are often thrown in, fre¬ 
quently find that they become deaf in consequence. 

Wetting of the hair is a cause of injury to the ear, as well as "wet¬ 
ting the ear itself. The practice is especially harmful in cold weather. 
Care should be taken to dry the hair, especially near the ears, when¬ 
ever it is wet. 

It is well to protect the ear from loud sounds, which are especially 
liable to cause injury if unexpected. When anticipated, the drum 
membrane is prepared by the action of muscles for the purpose, so 
that injury is less likely to occur. Persons have been made stone 
deaf by confinement in a belfry during the ringing of a large bell. 
Artillery-men often lose their hearing in consequence of the loud 
noises to which their vocation exposes their ears. Even shouting 
loudly in the ear has been known to produce injury. A bit of cotton 
placed in the ear will do much to deaden sound. 

One other caution should be given in conclusion. The attempt is 
sometimes made to relieve toothache by placing in the ear cotton sat¬ 
urated with camphor, chloroform, or other medicaments. While this 
mode of treatment is sometimes successful, the plan is not a good one 
nevertheless, as the injury done to the ear may be greater than the 
benefit received by the tooth. Both the tooth and the ear should be 
treated on their own merits, each for its own maladies, unless the 
other be implicated as a cause. 

Full explanations respecting the use of ear-trumpets and other 
means of aiding impaired hearing are given in connection with the 
consideration of the subject of deafness. 


202 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY , AND HYGIENE. 


THE CIRCULATORY APPARATUS. 


The organs of circulation, or the circulatory apparatus, constitute 
the means by which the blood, the nutritive fluid of the body, is cir¬ 
culated through all 
its different parts, 
carrying new material 
to parts requiring it 
for repairs, and carry¬ 
ing away to be ex¬ 
pelled from the body 
worn-out and useless 
or clogcdng elements 

DC O 

wherever found. The 
circulatory apparatus 
consists of the heart , 
the hloocl-vessels , and 
the lymphatics, the 
structure and func¬ 
tions of which we 
will now briefly ex¬ 
amine. 


The Heart.— Fig. 

88. The heart is the 
central organ of the 
circulation, and hence 
is very properly 
placed near the center 
of the body, in the 
thorax, its exact posi¬ 
tion being a little to 
the left of the median line in the central part of the chest, between 
the two lungs. The heart is a muscular organ. It is, in fact, a hollow 
muscle. It is conical in shape, and is suspended in the chest, with the 
base upward and the apex downward. The apex is free, and when the 
heart is beating may be felt to strike the chest just below the fifth rib 



Fig. 88. The Heart. 1. Eight Auricle; 18. Left Auricle; 
2. Vena Cava; 3. Aorta; 4. Pulmonary Veins; 5. Coronary Arte¬ 
ry and Veins ; 6. Pulmonary Artery. 





VALVES OF THE HEART. 


203 



and about one and one-half inches to the left of the breast-bone. The 
weight of the heart is ten to twelve ounces in men, and eight to ten 

in women. The heart 
is really a double or¬ 
gan, and may properly 
be considered as two 
hearts joined together. 
See Fig. 89. In some 
lower animals the two 
hearts are separate. 
See Fig. 90. The two 
hearts are called, re¬ 
spectively, the right 
heart and the left heart. 
Each heart has two 
cavities, a lower, called 
the ventricle , and an 
upper, called the au- 

Fig - . 89. Diagram showing the two sides of the Heart and ride , Oil aCCOUnt of its 
their cavities. ear-like appearance. 

The walls of the left ventricle, or the lower cavity of the left heart, 
are very much thicker than those of the right ventricle. A diagram 
of the cavities is shown in Fig. 89. 


Yalves of the Heart. —The auricle and the ventricle of each 
heart communicate with each other, but there is no direct communica¬ 
tion between the two hearts except in the 
infant before and just after birth when 
there is an opening between the two auri¬ 
cles. This opening between the auricle and 
ventricle in each heart is guarded by a 
valve which allows the blood to pass from 
the auricle into the ventricle but not back 
into the auricle. The valve in the left 
heart is called the mitral or bi-cuspid, 
having two cusps, or curtains. The valve 
in the right heart, having three cusps, is' 
called the tri-cuspid valve. See Fig. 91. 

Each of the cavities of the two hearts 
communicates with blood-vessels, the auricles communicating with 



Fig 1 . 90. The Double Heart of 


the Dugong. 






204 ANATOMY , PHYSIOLOGY. AND HYGIENE. 




Fig - . 91, The Heart with portion? of its walls removed, show¬ 
ing interior of cavities. 6, Tri' Cuspid Valve; 10. Mitral Valve; 
12. Semi-Lunar Valve. 


Fig:. 92. Section of the Heart, showing rela¬ 
tive size of its cavities, and thickness of the walls 
of the ventricles. 


veins, and the ven¬ 
tricles with arteries. 
The openings between 
the ventricles and ar¬ 
teries are also guarded 
with valves upon both 
sides, which from 
their half-moon shape 
are termed semi¬ 
lunar valves. The 
left semi-lunar valve 
guards the opening 
between the left ven¬ 
tricle and the aorta. 
The right semi-lunar 
valve guards the 
opening between the 
right ventricle and 
the pulmonary ar¬ 
tery. The veins have 
no true valves at their 
openings into the au¬ 
ricles, but are slightly constricted. 

The Pericardiumo —The heart 
is contained in a delicate sac 
called the heart-case, or pericar¬ 
dium, the lining membrane of 
which secretes a fine lubricating 
fluid to secure the utmost ease of 
action. The heart is lined with 
a delicate membrane, the endo¬ 
cardium, which is continuous 
with the lining of the blood-ves¬ 
sels. 

The Blood-Yessels.— There 
are three classes of blood-ves¬ 
sels, — arteries, capillaries, and 
veins. The arteries differ from 
the veins in having rigid walls. 











THE PRINCIPAL ARTERIES. 


205 


which are in the large arteries chiefly composed of connective tissue, 
but in the smaller ones contain a large proportion of involuntary 
muscular tissue. The smallest arteries, called arterioles, have their 
walls almost wholly made up of muscular tissue. The arteries derive 

their name from the fact that they 
are found empty after death, 'svhich 
led the ancients to suppose they were 
simply ducts for air. Fig. 93 gives 
a general view of the arterial sys¬ 
tem. 

Names of Some of the Principal 
Arteries. — The following are the 
names of some of the principal arte¬ 
ries of the body :— 

The aorta is the great artery of 
the body. It starts at the left ven¬ 
tricle, and subdivides into numerous 
branches in the various parts of the 
body through which it passes. Arch¬ 
ing upward as it leaves the heart, 
the aorta sends off large branches 
which supply blood to the head and 
upper extremities. The chief of these 
are the innominate, the carotid, and 
the subclavian. The first two sup¬ 
ply the right arm and the head, and 
the third the left arm. In the arms 
the arteries become first the brachial, 
which divides in the fore-arm into 
the ulna and radial, the ends of which unite in the hand to form an 
arch in the palm, known as the palmar arch. 

As it passes downward through the chest, the aorta gives off 
branches to the lungs and other organs contained in the thorax. In 
the abdominal cavity, branches are given off to the abdominal organs, 
the stomach, pancreas, spleen, intestines, liver, kidneys, and other 
viscera. In the pelvis the aorta divides into two branches, one of 
which goes to each of the inferior extremities, the plan of distribution 
in the lower limbs being similar to that in the arms. 

The large pulmonary artery which leaves the right ventricle is 
distributed w r holly to the lungs. 



Fig:, 93. The Arterial System. 




200 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


The Capillaries. —These are the smallest of the blood-vessels. 
They are so very small that they can only be seen with a good micro¬ 
scope. Their walls consist only of the lining membrane of the arte¬ 
ries. They form an intricate meshwork 
through all the soft tissues of the body. 
The size of the capillaries is generally 
not more than l - 0 (j of an inch, and some¬ 
times less. 

The Yeins. —The veins begin with 
the capillaries, and gradually increase 
in size as they approach the heart, by 
the joining together of branches from 
different parts of the body. The veins 
differ from the arteries, 1. In being more 
numerous, there usually being two veins 
for one artery; 2. In having flaccid walls 
which collapse when they are not filled; 
3. In having little or no muscular fibre 
in their walls, so that they cannot con¬ 
tract as do the arteries; 4. In having 
valves in some parts of the body which 
allow the passage of blood in only one 
direction,—toward the heart; 5. In com¬ 
municating freely with each other by 
connecting branches. The location of 
the valves can be readily seen by tying a 
cord around the arm, thus interrupting 
the flow of blood. In a few seconds the 
veins of the hand and arm will be very 
much swollen with blood, and at regular intervals along the vein, 
about an inch apart, will be noticed little prominences which mark 
the location of valves. Fig. 94 gives a general view of the Venous 
System. The valves are well shown in Figs. 95 and 9G. 

The veins usually correspond in name to the arteries which they 
accompany. A few of the most important are, the pending and de¬ 
scending venae cavce, which gather all the blood from the veins of the 
upper and lower parts of the body respectively; the innominate, 
which collects the blood from the head and upper extremities; the 
jugular, which returns blood toward the heart from the brain and 



Fig-. 94. The Venous System. 











































ACTION OF THE HEART. 


207 


head; the portal vein, which collects the blood 
from the stomach, pancreas, spleen, and intestines, 
and conveys it to the liver; the hepatic vein, 
which conveys blood from the liver to the as¬ 
cending vena cava; and the four pulmonary veins, 
which convey the blood from the lungs to the 
left auricle of the heart. For a representation 
of the system of blood-vessels, see Fig. 93. 

Action of the Heart. —Like all other muscles, 
the function of the heart is to contract. In do¬ 
ing so it expels from its cavities the blood con¬ 
tained in them, just as water is pressed out of 
the rubber bulb of a syringe. Each portion of 
the heart goes through a rhythmical action of 
contraction and dilatation, the two hearts, or right and left side of 
the heart, if it be considered as one, acting together. The auricles, 
contracting, send the blood which they contain through the mitral 
and tri-cuspid valves into the ventricles. When the ventricles contract, 
they send their blood through openings guarded by the semi-lunar 
valves into the aorta and pulmonary artery. This action is shown 
in Figs. 97 and 98. 



Fig 1 . 95. Fig:. 96. 


Fig. 95. Valves of 

veins closed. 

Fig. 96. Valves of 
veins as they appear when 
a vein is slit open. 



This action of the heart occurs 
about seventy-two times a minute, 
or four times for each respiration, 
and is called the heart-beat. 

Heart Sounds. —The beating 
of the heart is accompanied by 
two sounds, the first of which is 
produced by the striking of the 
apex of the heart against the wall 
of the chest, by the muscular con¬ 
traction of the heart, and by the 
closing of the valves between the 
auricles and the ventricles. The 
second sound is a short click 
made by the semi-lunar valves as 


Fig-. 97. Diagram showing Valve between 


. i , ,i r>, ii ii i Anricle and Ventricle open, and Semi.lunar Valve 

they close together alter the b OOC closed, allowing the Ventricle to fill. 

has been forced from the ventricles 

into the arteries, to prevent its return into the heart. 




























208 


ANATOMY , PHYSIOLOGY , A AD HYGIENE . 


Amount of Work Dono by the Heart. —Various estimates 
have been made of the force exerted by the heart in driving the 
blood through the arteries. Recently it has been shown very conclu¬ 
sively that the left ventricle exerts a force of no less than fifty 
pounds in its contraction, that of the right ventricle being only about 

one-third as much, and the auri¬ 
cles about one-tenth as great. 
Adding together the force ex¬ 
erted by the different portions of 
the heart at each beat, we have 
an aggregate of over seventy-five 
pounds. By this is meant that 
the heart exerts, each time it beats, 
a force as great as would be re¬ 
quired to lift seventy-five pounds 
a foot high. To ascertain the 
amount of work done by the 
heart, then, we have only to mul¬ 
tiply the amount of work done 
at each beat by the number of 

Fig. 98. Diagram showing Valve between . . . . 

Auricle and Ventricle closed, and Semi-lunar beats 111 a given time. Ine aver- 

Valve open, allowing blood to pass into the Arte- rate is seventv-two beats a 
ries. J 

minute, which would be 4,820 an 
hour, and 103,680 in a day of twenty-four hours. Multiplying the 
last amount by seventy-five, gives us 7,776,000 pounds as the entire 
work done by the heart during one day, which is equivalent to lifting 
3,888 tons a foot high in a minute. This amount seems so enor¬ 
mous as to be almost incredible; but there is no doubt of the correct¬ 
ness of the estimate. 

The wonderful vitality of the heart is shown not only by the amount 
of work done by it, but by the remarkable tenacity of life which it 
manifests, continuing to work under the most embarrassing circum¬ 
stances, as in disease, and when other important parts of the body 
have ceased to act. In cold-blooded animals it will even continue its 
rhythmical contractions for hours after the animal is killed and the 
heart taken from the body. The heart of a turtle can be made to con¬ 
tract more than twenty-four hours after being removed from the body 
of the animal. 

Although the heart seems to be in such constant activity, some 




FREQUENCY OF THE PULSE . 


209 


part of it is always at rest, each acting part taking a short rest after 
each contraction before acting again. The heart in this way obtains 
nine or ten hours of rest out of each twenty-four. 

The Pulse* —When the heart contracts, a wave-like impulse is sent 
throughout the whole arterial system, traveling from the heart to the 
remotest part of the body in about the sixth part of a second, so that 
it is practically instantaneous. Where the arteries come near the sur¬ 
face, this impulse may be felt, and is called the pulse. The most con¬ 
venient place for feeling the pulse is in the radial artery just above 
the wrist, on the outer or thumb side of the arm. It may also be felt 
in the carotid artery of the neck, the temporal artery of the temple, 
and in many other localities. 



Fig:. 99. Tracing of the pulse obtained by the sphygmograph. 

An ingenious instrument known as the sphygmograph , the use of 
which is described elsewhere, has been invented within a few years, 
by which the character of the pulse may be more carefully studied 
than with the finger. The tracing shown by the white line in Fig. 99 
we obtained with one of the latest and most improved forms of the 
instrument, known as Ponds Sphygmograph, a cut of which is shown 
elsewhere. As the pulse is really an index to the condition of the 
heart, it becomes also a good indicator of the general condition of the 
system, and much valuable information can be gained from its careful 
study. The various indications of the pulse are given elsewhere. 

Frequency of the Pulse, —The pulse, of course, corresponds ex¬ 
actly with the heart-beat in frequency, and whatever modifies one af¬ 
fects the other as well. The usual average rapidity is about seventy- 
two beats a minute. This rate is very considerably modified by vari¬ 
ous influences, some of which may be mentioned with advantage. 

1. The frequency of the pulse greatly depends upon the age. At 
birth the pulse rate is 136; from two to seven years, 97; fourteen to 
twenty-one, 76; twenty-eight to thirty-five, 70; fifty-six to sixty- 
three, 68; seventy-seven to eighty-four, 71. In females the pulse is 
seven to ten beats faster than in males. The average rate of pulsa¬ 
tion in males, from two to eighty years, is 73 ; that of females is 82. 










210 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 



2. Posture modifies the pulse rate. For 
example, it has been found that the pulse 
of a person whose heart beats 66 times a 
minute while lying down will be about 71 
when sitting, and 81 when standing. 

S. The frequency of the pulse is affected 
by temperament. In some persons the 
pulse is naturally much more rapid than 
in others. Some persons have remarkably 
slow pulses. Both Napoleon and Welling¬ 
ton had pulses remarkable for their slow¬ 
ness, not averaging more than fifty beats 
a minute. We once met a case, that of a 
young lady, in which the pulse was but 
thirty-two ; another patient, a young man 
who was in a very debilitated condition, 
we found with a pulse of but thirty. 

4. Digestion increases the heart-beat 
from five to ten per minute. The increase 
in frequency of the pulse is particularly 
marked after a meal consisting largely of 
flesh food. 

5. The influence of exercise upon the 
heart’s action is very great. A person 
whose pulse is 68, after a slow walk will 
have a pulse of 78; after walking at the 
rate of four miles an hour, 100; and after 
a rapid run, 140 to 150. In children and 
women the pulse is considerably slower 
during sleep than when simply reclining 
while awake. In adult males there seems 
to be no difference. 

6. The heart’s action is greatly ac¬ 
celerated by a high temperature, and is 
retarded by cold. A Turkish or Russian 
bath or a warm full bath will occasion a 

very considerable increase in the activity of the heart. The pulse of 
persons living in warm climates averages greater than that of those liv¬ 
ing: in cold climates. 

O 


Fig 1 . lOO. A Diagram of the Cir¬ 
culation. 1. Left Ventricle; 2. Right 
Ventricle; 3. Liver; 4. Spleen; 5. In¬ 
testines; 6. Stomach; 7. Pancreas; 
9. Urinary and Sexual Organs; a. 
Aorta; r r. Lungs; a. Pulmonary Ar¬ 
teries; v. Pulmonary Veins. 

















THE SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION . 


211 


A curious account is given by physiologists of a man who possessed 
such control of his heart as to he able to suspend its action altogether. 
On one occasion he remained for half an hour appearing as though dead, 
neither respiration nor heart action being perceptible. Several medical 

men were present. 

Tlie Course of the Blood 
in the Circulation, — The 

circulatory apparatus of the 
system may be divided into 
three distinct circulatory sys¬ 
tems; viz., the general or 
systemic, the pulmonary, 
and the portal. These three 
systems and their relations to 
each other and to the heart 
are shown in Figs. 100 and 
101, and still better in the 
diagram on Plate V. The 
general course of each of 
these three systems we will 
now trace. 

The Systemic Circula¬ 
tion. —The circuit of blood 
for the body in general starts 
at the left ventricle of the 
heart. By the contraction 
of the heart the blood is 
forced into the aorta, and 
as the semi-lunar valves 
close tightly behind it, each succeeding contraction .forcas the blood far¬ 
ther on in the arteries until it is thus propelled to the minute capillaries 
of the whole body. In those the blood flows very slowly, the motion 
often being imperceptible. The capillaries finally merge into veins, 
which gradually grow larger in size and smaller in number until they 
finally all unite to form two great venous trunks, the ascending vena 
cava, which conveys to the heart all blood from the lower part of the 
body, and the descending vena cava, which empties into the heart all 
the blood from the upper part of the body. The two vessels empty 
their contents into the right auricle. This completes the circle of the 



Fig 1 . 101. Diagram of the Circulation, showing by 
means of arrows the direction of the blood current in 
the blood-vessels. 









212 


ANATOMY , PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


systemic circulation, which, as will be observed, conveys the blood from 
the ventricle of the left heart to the auricle of the right heart. 

The Pulmonary Circulation. —In order to provide for its purifica¬ 
tion, we have a second system through which the blood is circulated. In 
this system the blood which is received into the right auricle from all 
parts of the body is forced by its contraction into the right ventricle, 
whence it is forced into the pulmonary artery. This artery conveys it to 
the lungs and distributes it in a special set of capillary vessels in which it 
undergoes purification, and is then, by means of the pulmonary veins, 
conveyed back to the heart, which it enters at the left ventricle. It is 
thus seen that the pulmonary circulation forms a circuit for the blood 
from the right ventricle of the heart to the left auricle, whence it enters 
the left ventricle and again begins its round in the systemic circuit. 

The Portal Circulation. —This system is really a subdivision of the 
systemic circulatory system. The blood which is distributed to the 
stomach, intestines, pancreas, and spleen, instead of returning with the 
rest of the blood of the general system direct to the heart by means of 
veins and the vena cava, is collected from all these organs by a large 
vein known as the portal vein, which conveys it to the liver, where it is 
distributed through a special set of capillaries provided to enable the 
liver to perform its special functions upon the blood, removing impuri¬ 
ties, completing the work of digestion to some extent, etc. All the ele¬ 
ments absorbed by the veins of the stomach during digestion are thus 
submitted to inspection before being allowed to enter the general circu¬ 
lation. From the liver the blood is carried to the ascending vena cava 
by means of the hepatic vein, and thus the portal circulation is com¬ 
pleted. 

Forces of the Circulation. —The heart, although the chief, is not the 
only active agent in the circulation of the blood. Several agents have 
part in the work, the principal of which will be enumerated as follows:— 

1. The Heart .—As already seen, the force exerted by the heart 
amounts to about seventy-five pounds each beat; and although this 
force is sufficient to propel the blood to the capillaries, so large an 
amount of friction results from the immense surface over which the 
blood passes in the capillaries that additional force is required. Again, 
there is good evidence for believing that the blood will continue to circu¬ 
late without the action of the heart, the arteries being always found 
empty when examined after death, though they must have been full 


FORCES OF THE CIRCULATION. 


213 


when the heart ceased its activity. In some low animal forms, too, the 
circulation is carried on without the aid of the heart, j ust as the sap is 
circulated in a plant. 

2. The Arteries. —The contraction of the heart, which gives the blood 
a propulsive impulse, is followed up by the contraction of the arteries. 
The small arteries are supposed to be specially active in assisting the cir¬ 
culation. Some observers claim that the small arteries or arterioles keep 
up a constant peristaltic action, by means of which the blood is urged 
forward. 

3. The Capillaries. —While the capillaries themselves are simply 
passive agents, the passage of the fluid part of the blood through their 
walls must occasion a capillary action similar to that which causes the 
rising and circulation of sap in trees and plants. It is claimed by some 
physiologists that the circulation is aided by the attraction of the walls 
of the capillaries for the nutritive elements of the blood. It is proven, 
at any rate, that blood which is well oxygenated passes readily through 
the capillaries, while that which contains carbonic acid is very much re¬ 
tarded in its progress in this part of the circulation. 

4. The Muscles and the Valves of the Veins. 

—The veins are so placed among the muscles that 
whenever contraction of the muscles occurs they 
are compressed, and the blood which they contain 
is necessarily displaced. As it cannot pass back¬ 
ward, on account of the valves which close when¬ 
ever a backward current is established, it must of 
necessity move forward. Contraction of a mus¬ 
cle has essentially the same effect upon it that 
squeezing has upon a sponge filled with water. 

This is undoubtedly an important aid to the venous circulation. See 
Fig. 102. 

5. Heat. —It is probably true that in certain parts of the body, at 
least, the elevation of temperature which the blood undergoes in the cap¬ 
illaries aids the circulation by increasing its volume, the pressure of blcod 
from behind compelling expansion in one direction, toward the veins. 

G. The Lungs. —The lungs operate with considerable force in aiding 
at least a portion of the venous circulation. When the chest is ex¬ 
panded, and while it is filling, the pressure being partly removed from 
the large veins which pass through the chest, the blood rushes in to fill 
them. In this way much assistance is especially afforded to the circula- 



Fig*. 102. Diagram 
showing how the valves of 
the veins aid the circulation 
by preventing back current. 




214 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE . 


tion of blood in the liver, which is a wise provision of nature, as it will 
be observed, by reference to the diagram of the circulation, Plate V, 
that the blood of the portal system passes through two sets of capilla¬ 
ries, the double amount of friction thus produced having a strong tend¬ 
ency to render the circulation in the liver sluggish. 

Regulation of the Circulation. —The heart’s action is under the 
immediate control of the nervous system. Each beat of the heart is in 
obedience to an impulse sent to it from the nerve centers of the brain 
and spinal cord. In order to provide for the various exigencies which 
make necessary an increase or diminution of the action of the heart, 
two sets of nerves are provided, one of which accelerates the action of the 
heart, while the other slows its contractions. The first function is per¬ 
formed by the sympathetic nerves, the second by the pneumogastric. 
By the action of these nerves the supply of blood to the general system 
is regulated according to its wants. For example, when a person is en¬ 
gaged in active exercise the muscles and nerves demand an increased 
supply of nourishment, which can only be furnished by an increased 
supply of blood. The increased waste also demands a quickened circu¬ 
lation to remove the products of the disintegration due to muscular 
activity. Hence the pneumogastric nerve releases in part its hold upon 
the heart, and the sympathetic nerve increases its action. Every part of 
the body receives an increased supply of blood, those not engaged in 
active exercise, to some degree at least, as well as those which partici¬ 
pate in the activity. 

Regulation of Local Blood Supply. —In addition to the nerves 
already referred to, there is a set of nerves which accompany the blood¬ 
vessels in their minutest subdivisions and remotest ramifications, by 
means of which the circulation of each organ, even each small portion 
of the body, is controlled. The nerves are connected with a collection of 
cells in the medulla oblongata known as the vaso-motor center. When 
an impulse is sent out from this center along any of the nerves which 
go out from it, the muscular walls of the small arteries to which the 
nerves are distributed are caused to contract, and thus a less amount of 
blood is allowed to flow through the part. When a slight degree of ex¬ 
citation of the nerves is kept up by the center, the walls of the arteries 
become relaxed, so that by their dilatation a much larger amount is al¬ 
lowed to flow through them than before. An experiment often per¬ 
formed by physiologists well demonstrates this action of the vaso-motor 
nerves. The vaso-motor nerve of the ear of a white rabbit beiner di- 

O 


COMPOSITION OF THE BLOOD. 


215 


vided, the white skin of the ear quickly becomes red, being congested 
with blood, the result of paralysis of the small arteries of the part. If 
the end of the divided nerve be stimulated by electricity, the arteries 
will at once contract and the skin assume its natural color. 

Blushing is due to the dilatation of the small arteries of the face 
from the effect of certain emotions upon the vaso-motor center in the 
brain. The paleness due to fright and extreme rage results from con¬ 
traction of the small arteries induced in the same way. 

The circulation of blood in the stomach, liver, and other internal 
organs, as well as in all other distinct parts of the body, is controlled by 
dilatation and contraction of the small arteries, in the manner described. 

THE BLOOD. 

The blood is a fluid tissue. In the body there are tissues of all 
degrees of consistency, from the dense bones and tendons to the per¬ 
fectly fluid blood. It is a highly vitalized fluid, not a mere chemical 
solution. The blood contains all the elements necessary for the building- 
up and keeping in repair of all the various tissues of the body. In addi¬ 
tion to nutritive elements the blood also contains the various effete or 
waste products which result from the breaking down of the various tis¬ 
sues as the result of vital action. It not only supplies nourishment to 
the hungry tissues but washes them free from the noxious products of 
daily waste. 

The quantity of the blood has been variously estimated, the esti¬ 
mates varying from ten to eighteen pounds, or about half as many 
quarts. 

Composition of tlie Blood. —To the unassisted eye the blood ap¬ 
pears to be a homogeneous fluid, of a reddish color which varies from 
the bright red of the arterial blood to the dark purple blood found in 
the veins. When examined with a microscope of sufficient power, the 
blood is found to be made up of about equal quantities of fluid and cer¬ 
tain minute solid bodies floating in the fluid, called blood corpuscles, of 
which there are two varieties, white , and red, each of which we will de¬ 
scribe. 

White Blood Corpuscles. —The microscope reveals in the blood 
minute protoplasmic bodies, resembling drops of transparent jelly, which 
constitute the white blood globules or corpuscles. Plate VI. These 
minute specks of life ma} r be considered as independent individuals, since 


216 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY , AND HYGIENE. 


they may be removed from the body and kept alive for weeks. A sci¬ 
entific writer not inaptly calls them little fishes swimming in the life- 
current which flows through the veins and arteries. So small are these 
little creatures that twenty-five hundred of them arranged in a row 
would make a line but an inch in length. When examined closely the 

white corpuscles may be seen to 
have in their central portion 
minute granular specks. See 
Fig. 103. 

The white corpuscles are sup¬ 
posed to have their origin in the 
lymphatic glands, in which cor¬ 
puscles exactly resembling them, 
and known as lymph corpuscles, 
are found in great numbers. 
When carefully studied under 
various circumstances they are 
found to undergo a regular proc¬ 
ess of growth and development 
like large animals, finally grow¬ 
ing old and at last dying and being removed from the body, cast out as 
dead bees are thrust out from a hive by the living workers. While 
in their active state these remarkable little bodies exhibit many won¬ 
derful properties. Though they have no organs of locomotion, they are 
able to move from point to point with ease and considerable rapidity. 
Having no mouths, they are yet voracious eaters. Though possessing 
no nerves or organs of any other sort, they appear to be exceedingly 
sensitive to heat and cold, electricity, and other agencies which in higher 
forms of life are recognized by organs of sense. How these functions 
are performed by the white blood corpuscle,—sometimes called the ani¬ 
malcule of the human blood,—we need not dwell upon in detail here, as 
the same subject has already been more fully explained in another con¬ 
nection. 

What are known as mucous, lymph, and pus corpuscles are appar¬ 
ently identical with white corpuscles. 

The Red Blood Corpuscles. —Besides the white corpuscles just 
described, and constituting by far the largest share of the solid con¬ 
stituents of the blood, are found the red blood corpuscles. See 



Tig. 103. Red and White Blood Corpuscles. 
a. White Blood Corpuscle; b. Red Corpuscle; 
c. Red Corpuscle, showing edge; d. Red Corpus¬ 
cles in rolls, an evidence of health. 




THE RED BLOOD CORPUSCLES . 


217 


Fig. 104. Like the white corpuscles, the red are exceedingly mi¬ 
nute, from three thousand to thirty-five hundred being required to 
form a row an inch in length. The red corpuscles differ from the 
white in several particulars. Instead of being globular, they are 
bi-concave and disc-like in form, being about one-fourth as thick 
as broad. Instead of being trans¬ 
parent, or gray in color, they are 
of a faint amber color, the red 
color of the blood resulting from 
the massing together of such im¬ 
mense numbers as are found in the 
vital fluid. It has been recently 
determined that there are more 
than 3,000,000 of these delicate 
bodies in a drop of blood no 
larger than can be made to hang 
upon the point of a pin. There 
are no less than 30,000,000,000,- 
000 red corpuscles in the whole 
body. The red are much more 
numerous than the white cor¬ 
puscles, in health, the average proportion being about 300 red to one 
white. The proportion of white corpuscles is greater just after a meal, 
and in certain forms of disease they occasionally become so numerous 
as to equal in numbers the red corpuscles, a condition which is very 
unfavorable to life. 

The color of the corpuscles is due to a peculiar kind of coloring 
matter which they contain. By means of this singular substance, as 
is supposed, the corpuscle acquires the power to absorb many times its 
own bulk of certain gases, a property similar to that possessed by 
fresh charcoal, which is rendered a good filtering medium on account 
of the large amount of condensed oxygen stored up in its pores. The 
color of the corpuscles differs according to the character of the gas 
which they are carrying, they being of a bright color when carrying 
oxygen, and darker when carrying carbonic acid, thus occasioning the 
difference in color between arterial and venous blood, as will be fur¬ 
ther explained in treating on the subject of “ Respiration.” 

The origin of the red corpuscles was for years a puzzle to physiolo¬ 
gists ; but an ingenious German solved the problem by removing a 





218 


ANATOMY , PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


small quantity of blood from the body and carefully watching it for 
a sufficient length of time to witness the actual development of red 
corpuscles. The blood, by being kept at the temperature of the body 
and in a moist atmosphere, seemed not to suffer by its removal; and 
the patient observer was rewarded for his pains by seeing white blood 
corpuscles gradually turn into red ones, thus demonstrating that red 
corpuscles are simply white ones grown old. 

Each corpuscle acts a part in the body but a brief period, as 
it passes quite rapidly through its various stages and becomes useless, 
when it is destroyed and removed from the body. The spleen and 
liver seem to be the most active blood-destroying organs. The color¬ 
ing matter of the blood corpuscles after their destruction is converted 
into the coloring matter of the bile. 

The blood corpuscles of animals resemble more or less closely those 
of human beings. Those of the dog are so near like human blood 
corpuscles as to be scarcely distinguishable. Those of the goat, sheep, 
and ox, are much smaller, and those of the elephant much larger than 
those of human beings. The corpuscles of the camel and llama are 
elliptical in shape, as are also those of birds, reptiles, and fishes. In 
the three last-named classes of animals the corpuscles are bi-convex 
instead of bi-concave. 

The Liquid Portion of the Blood. —The liquid half of the blood 
may be regarded as a solution of albumen, containing also small quan¬ 
tities of fat, certain salts, waste products, and gases. 

When exposed to the air the albuminous constituent of the blood 
is decomposed very quickly, one portion becoming semi-solid. This is 
what is known as coagulation of the blood. The part which coagu¬ 
lates is ordinarily known as fibrine. The albuminous elements of the 
blood are its chief nutritive elements. From these the tissues derive 
the material from which they are formed. While in solution in the 
fluid portion of the blood, or 'plasma, they permeate every organ and 
tissue of the body, thus bathing with a nutritive fluid all the tissues 
requiring repair. It is a curious fact that the fluidity of these 
elements seems, in some degree at least, to depend upon their constant 
motion, for blood soon coagulates when stagnation occurs. Any for¬ 
eign body introduced into a blood-vessel will also occasion coagula¬ 
tion. In inflammation and some other conditions the tendency to co¬ 
agulation is increased. 

The proportion of fat is ordinarily very small, being not more than 


FUNCTIONS OF THE BLOOD. 


219 


one part in twenty-five hundred of blood, or .01 per cent. After a 
meal consisting largely of fat, a much larger quantity may be found 
in the blood. In the blood of habitual drunkards, fat is also usually 
found in greatly increased quantities. 

The various analyses which have been made for the purpose of de¬ 
termining the saline constituents of the blood seem to us to be less re¬ 
liable than would at first appear, since they do not take into account 
the nature of the individual’s food. We have no doubt that a lar^e 
share of the so-called saline constituents of the blood are both unnat¬ 
ural and unnecessary elements in the quantities in which they are 
usually found, and that they only occur in the blood incidentally, hav¬ 
ing been taken in excess in the food, and being absorbed and carried 
by the blood to the various organs capable of eliminating them. This 
seems to be particularly true of the various compounds of soda, es¬ 
pecially sodium chloride, or common salt, which is found in the human 
system almost exclusively in the blood, merely a trace being found 
even in the bones, the hardest of all the tissues of the body. 

Functions of the Blood. —As before remarked, the blood not 
only supplies to the various tissues material from which they may re¬ 
plenish themselves, but washes them free from the poisonous products 
of vital activity, which are conveyed to the various organs designed 
to remove them. It will be interesting to consider briefly the work 
performed by the two varieties of corpuscles found in the blood and 
already described. 

Function of the White Blood Corpuscles.— The principal use 
of the white corpuscles probably is to ultimately become red ones, 
which have the most important work to perform. It is probable, also, 
that the white corpuscles have something to do with nutrition, since 
it has been noticed that they are most abundant at points where some 
injury has occurred or where repair is necessary for some other cause. 

Function of the Red Blood Corpuscles. —The red blood cor¬ 
puscles are probably the most immediately necessary to life of any of 
the elements of the body, if we except some of the nerve centers. 
This is well shown by the fact that many persons when nearly 
dead from loss of blood have been quickly recovered by the injection 
into the veins of fresh blood from which the fibrine had been removed, 
leaving only the corpuscles and serum. When serum alone has been 
used, no appreciable result has been obtained, but when the corpuscles 
are used with the serum, even though the nutritive fibrine be removed, 


220 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


the effect is sometimes almost as marvelous as the restoration of the 
dead to life. Indeed, it is stated on good authority that a dog which 
had been bled to death, after having blood from a living dog injected 
into his veins, got upon his feet and walked a short distance. Almost 
equally marvelous experiments have been made with human beings, 
decapitated criminals being used for the purpose. 

The chief business of the red corpuscles is to carry oxygen from 
the lungs to the tissues. Oxygen is the most essential to life of all 
the elements received into the system. The lungs are the organs by 
which it is taken into the body, and the red blood corpuscles act as 
carriers to distribute it. Each corpuscle takes on a load of oxy¬ 
gen about twenty times its own size, condensing it so as to make it 
portable, and this it carries to the capillaries, where the load of oxy¬ 
gen is laid off and a smaller load of carbonic acid taken on, the latter 
being carried to the lungs and discharged, and a new load of oxygen 
taken on. 

An Interesting Sight. —One of the most interesting of all the 
many marvelous sights revealed by the microscope, and one of great 
beauty and interest, is that of the circulation of the blood. The most 
convenient object for a demonstration of this kind is the tail of a 
young tadpole. The tissues near the end of the tail are so thin as to be 
translucent, so that sufficient light will pass through to form an image 
in the microscope. Almost any thin tissue can be used in the same 
way, as the web of the hind foot of a frog, the mesentery of a rat, or 
the ear of a bat. By placing one of these objects under the microscope 
a most marvelous sight is beheld. One who has once seen it will 
never forget it. On Plate V will be found an excellent representa¬ 
tion of what may be seen with the microscope. We have never 
watched this wonderful spectacle without feeling impressed anew 
with the power and wisdom of the Great Designer and Creator of all 
nature. As will be seen by reference to the engraving, the capillaries 
form a close network of minute canals through which the blood cor¬ 
puscles course in narrow lines. In the smallest capillaries they follow 
each other in single file; through the larger ones they pass in twos. 
In some of the smallest vessels the corpuscles seem to squeeze through 
with difficulty, being actually larger than the vessels through which 
they pass, which seeming impossibility they accomplish by changing 
their form, becoming elliptical, and going through their long way. 

Close inspection will bring to notice the fact that the red corpus¬ 
cles in their passage through the capillaries file along in the center of 


THE LYMPHATICS . 


221 


the vessel, while the white ones seem to loiter along the walls, stopping 
here and there a few seconds and then lazily pulling themselves along 
a short distance farther. If watched closely they may be seen, now 
and then, to make their way out of the blood-vessels in a curious 
fashion, by tucking themselves through the minute openings in the 
capillary walls very much as a ball of putty might, by changing its 
form, be tucked through a finger-ring. The red corpuscles sometimes 
accomplish the same feat, though very seldom. The corpuscles which 
thus leave the blood channels do not find their way hack again, but 
are carried to the heart by means of the lymph channels,—to be next 
described,—thus being saved and again used so long as they are serv¬ 
iceable. 

The capillary circulation has recently been observed in human be¬ 
ings by an eminent physiologist who discovered a means of making 
visible the capillaries and corpuscles in the lip. 


THE LYMPHATICS. 


The lymphatic system differs from the circulatory system of blood¬ 
vessels in that it has but one set of vessels, all of which run in the 
same direction, toward the center of the body. The lymphatic system 
also differs from the arterial and venous systems in that it has few 
large trunks, being almost wholly made up of minute vessels which 
constantly communicate with 
each other in all parts of the 
body. In certain localities 
there are found small gland¬ 
ular bodies about which the 
lymphatic vessels seem to col¬ 
lect, or from which they seem 
to radiate. These are known 
as lymphatic glands. They 
are chiefly found in the vicin¬ 
ity of the groins, the armpits, the neck, beneath the knee, in the bend 
of the elbow, and among the folds of the small intestine. See Figs. 
105, 106, and 107. 

The smallest vessels seem to originate in the connective tissue 
spaces, in all parts of the body. In the mucous membrane of the small 
intestine they originate in minute protuberances known as villi , which 
will be described hereafter. All the lymph vessels of the lower extrem- 



Fig\ 105. Lymphatic Glands. 



999 


ANATOMY , PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


Fig. 106. The Lymphatic Vessels and Glands of Ihe head and neck. 

ities, the abdomen, and left half of the upper part of the body, empty 
their contents, directly and indirectly, into a large duct known as the 
thoracic duct, which passes up at the back part of the cavity of the 
abdomen and the thorax and empties into the left subclavian vein. 
Those of the right half of the upper part of the body are drained by 
the lymphatic vein, or duct, which empties into the right subclavian 
vein. 

The contents of the lymphatic vessels is a clear, limpid fluid, which, 
when examined chemically and microscopically, is found to contain a 
fluid substance similar to the serum of the blood, except that it con¬ 
tains more of the waste or excrementitious elements than the blood. 
It also contains large numbers of corpuscles called lymph corpuscles, 













FUNCTIONS OF THE LYMPHATICS. 


223 


ivm 


which are similar to, and undoubtedly identical 
with, the white corpuscles of the blood. The 
motion of the lymph fluid is toward the center 
of the circulation, being only in one direction. 
Like the venous system, the lymph vessels have 
valves so arranged as to allow of a current in hut 
||! one direction. These valves are much more nu¬ 
merous in the lymphatics than in veins, as will 
he seen by reference to Fig. 108. In some low¬ 
er animal forms, as in frogs, there is a distinct 
lymph heart which propels the lymph fluid in the 
vessels. There is no such force 
in operation in man and higher 
animals, however, and it is prob¬ 
able that the current of fluid in 
the lymphatics is chiefly due to 
the forces which aid the venous 
circulation; viz., the pressure of 
fluid from the heart, which is 
being constantly propelled into 
the tissues, the contraction of the 
muscles, acting in conjunction 
with the valves, and the suction 
force of the lungs in the act of 
inspiration. 

Functions of the Lymphat¬ 
ics. —As would be readily sur- 

mised from the structure of the Ly *\fi B t° c 8 V e ™is 
lymphatic system, its principal showing Valves. 

function is absorption. From the skin, which is abundantly supplied 
with lymph vessels, water and many substances in solution may be 
absorbed, and thus taken into the system. A case is on record in 
which a boy in a London hospital, suffering with diabetes, absorbed 
nine pints of fluid through the skin in twenty-four hours. The por¬ 
tion of the lymphatic vessels which are most active in absorption are 
distributed in the mucous membrane of the intestines, where, as al¬ 
ready remarked, special facilities are afforded for the absorption of 
fluids by means of villi, projections of mucous membrane which 
float in the fluid to be absorbed. Through these channels—in this 



Fig-. 107. Shows Lym¬ 
phatic Vessels of the arm. 














224 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY , AND HYGIENE. 


part of the body known as lacteals—much of the food finds its way 
into the system. Absorption is also going on all through the body. 
Worn particles and waste products of all the tissues find their way to 
the heart through the medium of the lymph vessels. It is through 
these channels, also, that the white blood corpuscles, which, as we 
have already seen, sometimes escape through the capillary walls, find 
their w r ay back to the blood-vessels. 

It is supposed, also, by many of the most eminent physiologists 
that the lymphatic glands manufacture white corpuscles. 

HYGIENE OF THE CIRCULATION, 

Although the heart and blood-vessels are the least subject to serious 
direct injury of any part of the body, the circulatory apparatus is of all 
parts of the system the most liable to derangement, from sympathy 
with other parts. No part of the system can become in any way im¬ 
paired without affecting the circulation, so universal and intimate are 
the sympathies established by the nervous connections of the heart and 
blood-vessels. 

Exercise Necessary for a Healthy Circulation. —An abundance 
of muscular exercise is essential for the health of the circulatory appa¬ 
ratus. As already observed, the movements of the muscles in contract¬ 
ing squeeze the blood out of the small veins and press it onward toward 
the heart. This compels the heart to beat faster in order to dispose of 
the increased amount of blood which is brought to it, by which means 
two excellent results are obtained : 1. The impure, venous blood is sent 
to the lungs,—which in turn act with greater rapidity,—and is there 
purified and returned to the heart, so that the purity of the blood is in¬ 
creased by the exercise, notwithstanding some w r aste products from 
muscular action are added to it; 2. The heart, by beating faster, sends 
an increased supply of blood not only to the muscles, but to all the or¬ 
gans and tissues of the body ; and thus each part is enlivened and in¬ 
vigorated by the increased quantity of fresh, vitalized blood circulating 
through it. This increased activity of the circulation is not only bene¬ 
ficial to the muscles, nerves, and other tissues of the body, but also to 
the heart and blood-vessels themselves. The heart is a muscle, and by 
vigorous contractions it becomes strong, as would any other muscle. 
The proportionate strength of the heart is well shown by a simple ex¬ 
periment. Let two persons, one who is not accustomed to active mus- 


DANGERS OF EXCESSIVE EXERCISE. 


225 


cular exercise, and another who uses his muscles vigorously every day, 
each count his pulse while standing. Now let both walk briskly or run 
a few rods, or up and down stairs two or three times. Upon counting 
the pulse a second time it will usually be found that the pulse of the 
sedentary person is very much more excited than that of the person ac¬ 
customed to exercise. This shows that his heart is weaker, and is com¬ 
pelled to make much more violent exertions to accomplish a little extra 
work than a heart accustomed to demands of that sort. It is for this 
reason, mainly, that persons unaccustomed to running or walking usu¬ 
ally get out of breath so quickly, while one trained in this kind of ex¬ 
ercise will endure it with apparent ease for hours. Vigorous exercise, of 
course avoiding excess, makes strong muscles and a vigorous heart. 

Dangers of Excessive Exercise. —While a proper amount of ex¬ 
ercise is important and essential to the health of the circulatory system, it 
should be borne in mind that excess is not only detrimental but danger¬ 
ous. Violent exertion on the part of one unaccustomed to exercise is 
often productive of the most serious injury ; and even those who have 
been trained to violent exercises often suffer great detriment. Instances 
have occurred in which rupture of a blood-vessel has resulted from 
violent straining in lifting, j umping, or trapeze performances. It is well 
known that the valves of the heart in professional oarsmen are not in¬ 
frequently torn loose by the strain induced by rowing. Under violent 
muscular exertion the pressure of the blood in the arteries is very greatly 
increased, hence the danger. Violent exercises should always be avoided 
as in no way beneficial, and always detrimental and dangerous. All the 
advantages to be gained by exercise can be derived from such moderate 
exercises as have already been recommended in connection with the sub¬ 
ject of the “Hygiene of the Muscles,” and will be more fully described 
in a chapter especially devoted to the subject. 

Proper Clothing Essential to Healthful Circulation. —We 

cannot in this connection consider more of this broad subject of clothing 
than has an immediate bearing upon the subject in hand, and need not, 
as we have elsewhere devoted a chapter to its consideration. Undoubt¬ 
edly the prime object in clothing is to satisfy the demands of modesty ; 
but besides this, the greatest want supplied by artificial covering of the 
body is the necessity for an equable temperature. This can only be at¬ 
tained by clothing all parts of the body in such a manner as to secure 
the natural degree of temperature for its several parts, adapting the 
clothing to the climate and season of the vear. Failure to regard this 

O « O 

15 


226 


ANATOMY , PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


law is probably more common than the opposite. One-half of the hu¬ 
man family, at least, are habitually clad in a manner which totally ig¬ 
nores the requirements of nature in this regard. It is an exceedingly 
rare occurrence to find a woman who clothes her arms and limbs as 
nature requires them to be clad for health, at any rate among civilized 
nations. The women of barbarous tribes and nations are more sensible 
in this regard, and imitate their husbands and brothers in clothing their 
limbs as warmly as nature and the exigencies of climate demand. Civ¬ 
ilized women not only neglect themselves—we should properly say abuse 
themselves—in this regard, but their children are allowed to suffer from 
the same cause. Thousands of these little innocents have been sacrificed 
to the insatiable Moloch of Fashion. 

The extremities, being farthest from the great centers of heat and 
life, evidently need more clothing than other parts more favorably lo¬ 
cated ; but they commonly receive less. This is an evil, the magnitude 
of w T hich can scarcely be overestimated. We have no hesitation in ven¬ 
turing the assertion that thin shoes and stockings, and bare arms and 
legs, kill more children every year than the infamous Herod murdered 
in Bethlehem. Every philanthropist ought to join earnestly in the 
work of effecting a reform in this direction. Little reward can be ex¬ 
pected, however, for this kind of work in the present generation. The 
results would be best seen in the next, in the effective labors of thou¬ 
sands whose lives are now made useless by disease, the foundation of 
which was laid in early childhood by the evil practice in question, and 
of thousands of others who to-day are filling tiny graves which ought 
to have remained vacant for at least threescore years. Every mother 
who becomes enlightened on this subject ought to communicate the 
knowledge she has gained to the mothers in the circle of her acquaint¬ 
ance. By this means, together with the influence of example, we might 
hope for good results. There has been recently organized in New York 
City a society, the stated object of which is the prevention of cruelty to 
children. We would most earnestly commend to their attention this 
question of proper clothing, and we doubt not that the amount of 
good they might do by propagating correct principles on this subject 
would far exceed the good results in all other departments of their work. 

Evil Effects of Constriction, —Constriction of any part of the 
body is certain to be followed by evil consequences. Suppose, for ex¬ 
ample, a string be tied tightly around the finger. Every one is fa¬ 
miliar with the fact that the finger thus ligated will speedily lose its 


EFFECTS OF FOOD ON THE CIRCULATION. 


'227 


natural color, become dark and as quickly lose its natural warmth, 
becoming cold, and that notwithstanding its swollen condition due to 
the superabundance of blood. An elastic around a limb will have 
precisely the same effect upon the foot, though in Jess degree. The 
circulation being obstructed, less blood than is necessary to health 
flows through the foot, and it is habitually cold; and from the con¬ 
stant interference with its nutrition, it becomes shrunken and weak. 
The use of elastics is well known to be a cause of thin calves. 

A constriction about the waist, from compressing the stomach, liver, 
and other internal organs, must do an immense amount of harm to the 
body by interfering with the functions of these important organs. 
It makes no difference whether the constriction is due to a tightly 
drawn corset or to the bands of skirts hung upon the hips, or to a 
belt tightly clasped; the effect is the same. An English medical 
journal is authority for the statement that in that country quite a 
large proportion of women upon whom post-mortem examinations are 
held are found to have their livers malformed from compression due 
to this very cause. We have seen cases in which the liver was cut 
nearly in two, and cases are reported in which the liver had actually 
been divided by this cruel process. By the interference with the cir¬ 
culation in abdominal organs, piles or hemorrhoids is induced, with 
painful local disorders peculiar to females. 

Constriction of the throat is an evil not now so common as in 
former days when the old-fashioned cravat was worn; but occasion¬ 
ally care is not taken to secure the degree of freedom about the neck 
which is essential to health. It requires but a very slight constric¬ 
tion of the neck to interfere with the circulation of the head suffi¬ 
ciently to occasion very unpleasant and even serious symptoms, such 
as headache, dullness, and vertigo; even apoplexy may be induced in 
this way. 

Effects of Food on the Circulation. —As the blood is made of 
what we eat, it is evidently of the greatest consequence that what 
is taken into the stomach for the purpose of making blood should 
be of the very best material. Poor food will make poor blood, which 
will, in turn, make all the tissues of poor quality. Certain kinds of 
food, as what is termed rich food, or that which contains too much of 
sugar, fats of various sorts, and condiments, deteriorate the blood, both 
directly and indirectly. Directly, by filling it with useless or super¬ 
abundant material; indirectly, by rendering the liver sluggish and in- 


228 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE . 


efficient, thus occasioning an increase in the elements which ought to 
be removed as bile. Other foods damage the blood by filling it with 
material which is not only directly injurious to the blood itself, but to 
all the tissues with which it comes in contact, whether in finding their 
way into the blood through the stomach or out of it through the 
liver, kidneys, skin, bowels, and other eliminating organs. Of this 
character are most condiments, as will be shown in treating of the 
subject of “Food and Diet,” as well as in connection with “The 
Hygiene of Digestion,” to which we would invite the further attention 
of the reader. 

Narcotics and stimulants must not be overlooked in this connec¬ 
tion, for their influence for evil upon the heart and the circulation is 
too great and too well determined to allow of the possibility of doubt, 
or the need of waiting for further evidence. Alcohol, tobacco, hashish, 
opium, absinthe, even tea and coffee, must be included in the category 
of harmful agents of this class. The manner in which each of these 

O 

agents operates in effecting its evil work must be left for special con¬ 
sideration in a chapter devoted to the subject. 

Injurious Effects of Cold. —Cold paralyzes the heart, and 
to its depressing influence is due the fact that so large a propor¬ 
tion of aged persons die in the cold season of the year. Having 
lost in some degree their power to produce animal heat, they 
quickly succumb to the exposures incident to the inclement season 
of the year. Hence it is important that the old, of all others, should 
be warmly clad in winter. There are current many incorrect 
notions respecting the means of protection from the injurious in¬ 
fluence of cold. The idea that stimulants will enable a person to 
withstand cold has been long exploded. The uniform testimony of 
physiologists and Arctic explorers is to the very reverse. Physi¬ 
ologists find by actual experiment, testing the temperature of a 
person both before and after the imbibition of spirits; that the tem¬ 
perature is uniformly lowered by alcohol in all forms. Arctic navi¬ 
gators say that for a man to take alcohol when traveling amid the 
snow and ice of the frozen regions of the North, where the tempera¬ 
ture is often 70° F. below zero, is almost certain death. Alcohol makes 
a man feel warmer, but really abstracts heat from him. So with to¬ 
bacco, which many persons habitually smoke, in the winter to make 
them warm and in the summer to keep them cool. It depresses the 
action of the heart, and consequently diminishes the amount of heat 


EVIL EFFECTS OF HEAT. 


229 


produced. The best means of protection are those which will raise 
the vital tone, strengthen the force of the circulation, and thus increase 
the manufacture of heat, while proper means are taken to preserve 
and economize that which is produced. Cool bathing for the robust is a 
splendid method of augmenting animal heat. The use of the oil-bath 
is an excellent means of protection from cold. A gentleman who was 
able to speak from experience said very truthfully that an inunction 
was as good as an extra overcoat. 

Many persons make the great mistake at the beginning of cold 
weather of shutting themselves up indoors with hot stoves or furnaces, 
confining themselves to avoid taking cold. This is the most certain way 
to prepare one’s self to acquire a cold upon the slightest provocation. A 
person may become so tender and susceptible by following such a plan 
that simply opening the window for a breath of fresh air, stepping to 
the door to admit a friend, or the most trivial degree of exposure will be 
sufficient to bring upon him the most severe effects of “ taking cold.” 
All persons, particularly those who are specially sensitive to cold, even in¬ 
valids, should, at the beginning of winter, begin to accustom them¬ 
selves to cold. Thus by degrees their susceptibility may be overcome in 
a very large measure, if not wholly. Daily exercise in the open air, and 
a daily bath with friction of the skin and inunctions, with plenty of 
good food and abundance of sleep are also important means of fortify¬ 
ing the system against the ravages of cold. 

Evil Effects of Heat *—Excessive heat has a still more disastrous 
effect upon the circulation than cold, as is evidenced by the large 
number of cases of sudden death which annually occur from “sun¬ 
stroke ” and “ heat-stroke.” That this malady is really due to heat and 
not to the influence of the sun, as many suppose, is evidenced by the 
fact that many cases occur among factory operatives, furnace men, 
stokers in ships, and other persons whose occupation is wholly indoors. 
The remedies for this affection are given in the proper place. As it is 
often fatal, its prevention is of equal importance with its cure. Those 
who have had the most extensive experience with this disease assert that 
those who suffer from it are, as a general thing, persons who are in a 
debilitated condition from overwork, loss of sleep, dissipation, the use of 
alcohol, or poor and insufficient food. Stimulants are especially condu¬ 
cive to the disease. All these predisposing causes should, of course, be 
avoided, as well as the exciting cause already indicated. Persons who 
are exposed to excessive heat in the summer season should take care to 


230 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


keep the head cool, which may bo accomplished by means of a cloth wet 
in water and worn inside the hat, by very frequent wetting of the head, 
by the use of umbrellas in the sun, and by other means which special 
circumstances may require or suggest. Fig. 109 illustrates a mode of 
keeping the back part of the head cool in hot weather which may be 
adopted with advantage by fhose whose occupation obliges them to be 
much exposed to the sun. 

The habit of frequently applying ice or ice-cold 
water to the head in hot weather is likely to be 
productive of injury. The head is cooled for the 
moment, but a reaction soon takes place, and then 
there is a greater determination of blood to the 
head than ever. It is best to employ for bathing 
the head, water which is only moderately cool, and 
then depend on the evaporation to produce the 
necessary cooling- effect. Ice and iced-water should 
be used only in cases requiring sudden and ex¬ 
treme cooling of the head, and then should be con¬ 
tinuously applied until the desired effect is obtained. 

The natives of Africa protect themselves from 
the intense heat of the tropical sun to which they 
are exposed by smearing their bodies with ghee> 
a kind of ointment. It is difficult to see what benefit can be derived 
from such a proceeding, but it is possible that the smooth, oiled surface 
of the skin may reflect the solar rays of heat and thus protect the body 
from their influence, at least to some extent. 



of protecting the back of 
the head and neck from 
exposure to the sun. 











THE RESPIRATORY APPARATUS . 


231 


THE RESPIRATORY APPARATUS. 




The respiratory apparatus 
consists of the air-passages, 
the lungs, and the thorax, 
each of which will be briefly 
described. 

The Air-Passages. — 

These consist first of the 
mouth, the nose, the phar¬ 
ynx, or back part of the 
mouth, the trachea , or wind¬ 
pipe, the upper part of which 

is also called the larynx, and ^ „ . . ..... .. . , 

J ’ Fig 1 . 110. The Pharynx, shown by slitting the cheeks 

the bronchial tubes. The at the corners of the mouth; 6. Mouth of ductfrom the pa- 

rotid gland; 7. Eoof of mouth; 8. Posterior nares; 9. Fau- 
mouth needs no precise de- ces - Uvula; ll. Tonsils; 13. Tongue. 

scription. The nose or na¬ 
sal cavity consists of a hollow left between the bones of the face 
and those of the skull, which is divided into two parts by a bony and 
cartilaginous septum, each compartment communicating separately ex¬ 
ternally through the anterior nares, or 
nostrils, and with the back part of the 
mouth through the posterior nares. 

The trachea, or windpipe, is a flexible 
open tube situated just in front of the 
meat pipe, or gullet, and is composed 
chiefly of rings of cartilage comiected 
together by membrane. These rings are 
not quite complete at the back side, the 
space being filled by muscular tissue. 

The larynx is the upper part of the 
trachea, and consists of a cartilaginous 
box across which are stretched four deli¬ 
cate ligaments, the vocal cords, the up¬ 
per two being the false, and the lower 
the true vocal cords, which are con¬ 
cerned in the production of the voice. 


Fig:. 111. The Larynx. 6. Thy- 
roid Gland. 







232 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


The top of the larnyx is guarded by a cartilage, the epiglottis, which 
is shaped somewhat like a leaf, and has a hinge-like attachment to 
the upper end of the windpipe, so that when the tongue *is drawn 
hack, as in swallowing, it will fit down upon the larynx like a cover, 
and completely close it. By this wonderful provision of nature, both 

solids and liquids are 
prevented from en¬ 
tering the trachea 
while eating or 
drinking. A patient 
in Bellevue Hospi¬ 
tal, New York, whose 
epiglottis had been 
destroyed by disease, 
had great difficulty 
in swallowing on ac¬ 
count of the frequent 
entrance of particles 
of food into the tra¬ 
chea, causing violent 
coughing. The car¬ 
tilages of the larynx 
form the prominence 
in the throat just 
below the chin, 
Fig. 112. The Air-Passages. which moves Up and 

down in swallowing, and is popularly known as Adam’s apple. 

The bronchial tabes are simply continuations of the trachea, 
which divides into two branches in the chest, one of which enters 
each lung and there subdivides until the tubes become not more than 

O 



T hg- of an inch in diameter, when they terminate in the air-cells. 
After the bronchial tubes become so small as A of an inch, the carti¬ 
lage disappears from their walls, so that the small bronchial tubes, or 
bronchioles, have membranous and muscular walls. 

The air-passages are lined throughout with mucous membrane. 
The epithelium of the windpipe and bronchial tubes is very peculiar, 
consisting of cone-shaped cells, the large ends of which are covered 
with delicate hairs. These are kept in constant motion, always wav¬ 
ing in the same direction, by which means there is maintained a con- 





THE LUNGS. 


233 


stant current of mucus in the direction of the mouth. The evident 
purpose of this arrangement is the protection of the lungs from dust, 
which will he caught in the stream of mucus and carried to the 
mouth for expulsion. 

The relative position of the several portions of the air-passages is 
well shown in Fig. 112. 



The Lungs. —The real structure of the lungs is seen only by ex¬ 
amination with a powerful microscope, which shows the pulmonary 
tissue to be made up almost wholly of small cells and minute capillary 
blood-vessels, together with the small bronchial tubes. These several 
elements are somewhat loosely 
held together by bands of yellow 
elastic tissue, of which a great 
share of the lung substance is com¬ 
posed. The cells are arranged in 
groups of fifteen or twenty, which 
are called lobules. Each lobule is 
attached to the end of a bronchiole 
with which it communicates. Fig. Fig-. 113. Lobules of Long, Bhowing at a end 

, r, . , of bronchial tubes, and at c c air cells. 

lid shows two or the lobules with 

the end of the small bronchial .tube with which they are connected. 
The number of cells in the lungs has been calculated to be not less 


than seventeen hundred million (1,700,000,000). 

The lung cells as well as the air-passages are lined with a mem¬ 
brane which is so very thin that twenty-five hundred layers would 
be required to make an inch in thickness. The extent of this mem¬ 
brane is very great, owing to the great number of the cells. It has 
been estimated that if spread out its area would be not less than two 
thousand square feet. Underneath this thin membrane is spread out, 
in the walls of the cells, the closest network of capillaries in the body. 
So small are they that only a single blood corpuscle can pass through 
at once, and so near are they placed together that they occupy fully 
three-fourths of the entire surface, great as it is. Through these minute 
channels pass over fifteen barrels of blood every twenty-four hours. 

The lungs occupy the two sides of the chest, the cavity of which 
they nearly fill. The right lung is divided by two deep fissures 
into three portions, called lobes. The left lung consists of two lobes. 
Both lun^s are covered over with a delicate serous membrane, the 

O 

pleura , which also lines the chest walls. 



234 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


The thorax is the upper of the two cavities into which the trunk 
of the body is divided, being separated from the abdomen by the dia¬ 
phragm, a muscular organ which has been already described. It is 
made up of its bony framework—the ribs, vertebrae, and sternum—and 

the muscles which lie 
between the ribs and 
about the upper part 
of the chest. It is 
lined by the same 
membrane which cov¬ 
ers the lungs, the 
pleura. The lungs lie 
in immediate contact 
with its inner walls, 

from attachment to it. 
The thorax contains, 
in addition to the 
lungs, the heart and 
the great blood-ves¬ 
sels, together with im¬ 
portant nerves. Con¬ 
nected with the tho¬ 
rax and accessory or- 
FigT. 114. Cut showing the relation of the Lungs and Heart. « . ,. 

gans oi respiration are 

several sets of muscles which aid in expanding and contracting 
the cavity of the thorax. 

PHYSIOLOGY OF RESPIRATION. 

The lungs are the means by which the system receives gaseous 
food. It is received all ready for use by the system, no elaborate prep¬ 
aration being required as in the case of solid food taken by means of 
the stomach. Of the three kinds of food received by the body, solid, 
liquid, and gaseous, air is by far the most immediately essential to 
life. A person may live many days without solid food, and several 
days with neither solid nor liquid aliment; but death occurs in a few 
minutes when the supply of air is cut off, as in suffocation or drown¬ 
ing, a fact which indicates with sufficient clearness the importance of 
the subject. 


but are perfectly free 















MOVEMENTS OF RESPIRATION. 


235 



Fig:. 115. Cut showing how the ca¬ 
pacity of the chest is enlarged by ex¬ 
pansion of its walls and depression of 
the diaphragm. 


Movements of Respiration.— The 

acts of respiration are two,—inspira¬ 
tion and expiration. These two acts 
are performed by changes in the size of 
the thorax. In producing inspiration, 
the thorax is made larger, by depres¬ 
sion of the diaphragm—which elongates 
the chest cavity—and elevation of the 
ribs, which enlarges the chest laterally. 
In consequence of the increased space 
in the thorax, the air simply rushes in 
to occupy the room made for it. It 
should be noticed in this connection that 
the air does not force its way in, but 
simply enters when invited by room 
being made for it. In expiration, the 
opposite takes place. The ribs are low¬ 
ered, and the diaphragm, being relaxed, 
is pressed upward into the chest by 
the contraction of the abdominal mus¬ 
cles. The natural elasticity of the lungs 
also aids in expiration, as they are for¬ 
cibly distended during inspiration, and 
naturally tend to return to their normal 
state, which is undistended, as at birth. 
There are said to be three kinds of res¬ 
piration, according to the portion of the 
lumxs which is most active. When 
the breathing is performed mostly by 
the diaphragm, it is termed abdominal 
respiration; when the lower portion of 
the ribs is used, inferior costal; and 
when the upper part of the chest is em¬ 
ployed, superior costal . The last-named 
is the most common respiration in 
women, which is said to be natural for 
them, but which, in our opinion, is due 
to the fact that by their mode of dress the lungs are usually confined 
so that only the diaphragm and upper ribs can operate freely, the 



Fig 1 . 11 6 . A lateral -slew illustrating 

the same as Fig. 115. 





236 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE . 


chest being effectually hindered from lateral expansion by the em¬ 
ployment of tight-lacing with or without the use of corsets. For 
change in size and appearance of chest during respiration, see Figs. 
115, 116, 117, 118. 

Frequency of Respiration. —The general law of respiration re¬ 
quires one respiratory act for every four heart-beats. As the pulse is 
seventy-two to eighty per minute in the adult, respiration is from 
eighteen to twenty during the same time. The frequency of respira¬ 
tion is increased and diminished by the same causes^which affect the 
pulse rate. It is notably increased by exercise, heat, and stimulants, 
and diminished by sleep and by cold. During the hibernation of an¬ 
imals respiration is so slight and infrequent as to be almost impercep¬ 
tible, the pulse being diminished proportionately. 

Coughing, Sneezing, Laughing, and Other Modifications of 
Respiration. —Most of these modifications of the respiratory act are 
more or less involuntary, though to some degree controllable by the 
will. Coughing and sneezing consist of a prolonged inspiration fol¬ 
lowed by a forcible exhalation, produced by a convulsive expiratory 
effort, the air, in coughing, being expelled wholly through the mouth, 
in sneezing by both mouth and nose, though chiefly by the mouth, 
contrary to the usual opinion. Sighing is a deep and prolonged in¬ 
spiration, followed by a rapid and audible expiration. A slight sigh 
naturally occurs every seventh or eighth respiration, by which a more 
complete change of air in the lungs is effected than in ordinary 
breathing. Yawning is similar to sighing, except that the mouth is 
widely opened during inspiration and that it is involuntary. It is a 
curious fact that yawning is contagious in a remarkable degree. A 
person who is able to imitate yawning well may by adroit manage¬ 
ment set a whole company of people yawning. Laughing and sobbing 
differ more in the character of the emotions which they accompany 
than in the mode of production. Both acts result from short and 
convulsive movements of the diaphragm, accompanied by contraction 
of the muscles of expression. Hiccough is a modification of inspira¬ 
tion, being due to sudden contraction of the diaphragm. It is usually 
indicative of derangement of digestion, being often caused by rapid 
eating and by the use of effervescing drinks. 

Capacity of tlie Lungs. —The cubic contents of a pair of well 
developed lungs is about three hundred and twenty cubic inches. Of 


VITAL CAPACITY. 


237 


this quantity but a small part is used in ordinary respiration, not 
more than twenty cubic inches. It is possible, however, after making 
an ordinary expiration of twenty cubic inches, by a strong effort to 
force out one hundred cubic inches more. It is also possible after an 
ordinary inspiration to inhale, by a strong effort, one hundred cubic 




inches extra. Thus after 
a forcible inhalation a 
person may expel from 
the lungs two hundred 
and twenty cubic inches 
of air; but there always 
remains one hundred 
cubic inches of air in 
the lungs which cannot 
be expelled. The object 
of this great surplus of 
breathing capacity is to 
provide for contingencies 
of various sorts which 
are continually arising, 
and which make demands 
for an increased quan¬ 
tity of air. It is to this 
that is due the fact that persons may even live for years after one 
lung has become entirely useless, examples of which we have several 
times met in our own practice. The comparative capacity of the 
lungs after inspiration and after expiration is well shown in Figs. 


Fig-. 117. 


Fig-. 118. 


Fig. 117. Relative capacity of the Chest and position of 
the Diaphragm after a complete Expiration. 

Fig. 118. Relative capacity of the Chest and position of 
the Diaphragm after a full Inspiration. 


117 and 118. 


Yital Capacity. —The amount of air that can be changed at one 
respiration is called the vital capacity of an individual. Dr. Hutchin¬ 
son has shown that vital capacity depends much upon the height, and 
increases regularly at the rate of eight cubic inches for every inch of 
increase in height between five and six feet, being about one hundred 
and seventy-five cubic inches for a person five feet in height, and 
about two hundred and fifty-five cubic inches in persons six feet in 
height. The vital capacity can be greatly increased by proper train¬ 
ing, as we have often demonstrated in the treatment of consumptive 
patients. 





238 


ANATOMY , PHYSIOLOGY , AND HYGIENE. 


Composition of the Air. —The air we breathe is a simple mixt¬ 
ure of numerous gases, the chief of which are oxygen and nitrogen, 
the former constituting about one-fifth, and the latter four-fifths of 
the whole, the other gases being so minute in quantity that they need 
not be taken into account, with the exception of carbonic acid, or 
more properly carbon di-oxide, and watery vapor. Of the former the 
air contains about four parts in ten thousand; and of the latter a va¬ 
riable quantity. That is, in one hundred cubic inches of air there are 
about twenty cubic inches of oxygen (20.89), and about eighty cubic 
inches of nitrogen (79.11); and in ten thousand cubic inches of air 
there are four of carbon di-oxide. Besides these the air contains slight 
quantities of the various gases given off in animal and vegetable 
decomposition, and arising from the numerous chemical and physical 
changes going un upon the surface of the earth, together with dust 
and various other foreign matters, all of which may be considered im¬ 
purities, the nature and dangers of which will be elsewhere explained. 

For animals, and. in fact, according to recent discoveries, for all 
living forms, vegetable as well as animal, the oxygen of the air is 
the essential element. Life is dependent upon its regular and ade¬ 
quate supply more than upon any other element. 

The nitrogen of the air is only useful to dilute the oxygen, as in 
an atmosphere of pure oxygen we should live so fast as to be very 
short-lived. Experiments with animals show that prolonged inhala¬ 
tion of air in which the proportion of oxygen is much different from 
that in which it naturally occurs in the atmosphere produces great 
disturbance of the system and finally death, from which it appears 
that the mixture which we call air is not an accidental compound, but 
one admirably adapted to the wants of human beings as well as lower 
animals and even plants. 

The carbonic acid in the air is the result of animal and vegetable 
decomposition, combustion, and the respiration of plants and animals. 
It is not necessary to human life, but is essential to the life of plants, 
of which it constitutes one of the principal forms of food, another ad¬ 
mirable adaptation of nature by which what is poisonous to one part 
of the animate creation is essential to the existence of the other. 
Plants require carbonic acid, or carbon di-oxide, as food, yet they re¬ 
spire oxygen, as do animals. This fact has not been known until re¬ 
cently. 

The watery vapor of the air is necessary to enable the lungs to 


CHANGES IN THE BLOOD IN RESPIRATION. 


239 


utilize the oxygen readily, it being found by experiments that dry 
oxygen is absorbed much less rapidly than that which contains a due 
proportion of moisture. 

Changes in the Air During Respiration. —Upon examining the 
air which is exhaled from the lungs it is found that while passing 
through these organs it undergoes certain changes, both losing and 
gaining certain elements. The air taken into the lungs in an ordinary 
respiration— 

Loses about one cubic inch of Oxygen. 

Gains about one cubic inch of Carbonic Acid Gas. 

Gains about one cubic inch of Watery Vapor. 

Gains about one cubic inch of Organic Matter. 

i 

During forced respiration, when a larger quantity of air is inhaled, 
the quantity of oxygen lost in the lungs and the amount of carbonic 
acid gained are of course greater, which is also true of the other 
changes mentioned. It should be remarked that the amount of car¬ 
bonic acid gained is a little less than that of the oxygen lost. 

Changes in the Blood in Respiration. —The changes which 
occur in the blood while passing through the capillaries of the lungs 
are equally marked. When the blood enters the lungs from the pul¬ 
monary artery, which brings it from the right heart, it is of a dark pur¬ 
ple color, its color being due to the impurities which it contains, the 
chief of which is carbonic acid. When the blood leaves the lungs, 
it is of a bright red color, having exchanged its carbonic acid for oxy¬ 
gen, which is absorbed by the red corpuscles to be conveyed to every 
part of the system, being assimilated in the capillaries of the tissues 
and changed to carbonic acid, which is brought back to the lungs in 
the venous blood. Other impurities are also given out in the lungs, 
constituting the organic matter of the expired air. The blood also loses 
a little of its water in passing through the lungs, and is slightly 
cooled. The last-mentioned fact completely refutes the old theory of 
an eminent chemist, which is still believed by some, that the lungs are 
a sort of furnace in which the carbon of the blood is consumed as coal 
or wood is consumed in a stove, since if the theory in question were 
true, the blood would gain heat in the lungs instead of losing. 

The blood and air are brought into such close contact in the lungs, 
being only separated by the delicate membrane already described, 
which is not more than ytuh of an inch in thickness, that the change 



240 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


of gases takes place with the greatest facility. Indeed, it is believed 
that the membrane lining the air-cells facilitates, rather than hinders, 
the escape of the carbonic acid in the lungs and the absorption of oxy¬ 
gen. When it is considered that nearly five hundred gallons of blood 
are thus purified every day (the same blood being purified over many 
times), for which more than eighty barrels of air are required, it is 
readily seen that there is abundant necessity for the two thousand 
square feet of membrane devoted to this purpose in the lungs. 

By this process of indirect combustion, in many respects analogous 
to the burning of coal on a grate or of wood in a stove, or the burning 
of a candle or a gas jet, more than half a pound of solid carbon is 
daily consumed in the body. In persons whose occupation is very 
laborious, more than three-quarters of a pound is thus daily consumed. 

The amount of carbonic acid exhaled is modified by several other 
influences besides exercise, as age, sex, diet, etc. The largest amount 
is exhaled during the prime of life, gradually increasing from infancy 
to that period, and declining during advancing age. Females exhale 
much less than males. Much more is produced during digestion than 
at other times, the amount being particularly increased by certain 
articles of food, as sugar and animal food, and especially by stimulants, 
wine, rum, beer, ale, cider, and even tea and coffee, a fact which com¬ 
pletely refutes the argument made in favor of the last-named articles, 
that they diminish the waste of tissue, since it is evident that they in¬ 
crease it. These facts were chiefly established by the experiments of 
the late Dr. Edward Smith, of England. During sleep the amount of 
carbonic acid exhaled is greatly diminished. In the winter sleep of 
some hibernating animals it is reduced to less than of the ordinary 
amount. Violent exercise may increase the quantity of carbonic acid 
exhaled to six times the ordinary amount. In a dry atmosphere the 
mucous membrane of the lungs becomes dry, and thus :ses in a con¬ 
siderable degree its power to transmit gases, so that ti ; amount of 
carbonic acid is greatly diminished while breathing it. 

Respiration of the Skill. —The lungs are not the only respira¬ 
tory organs. The skin also participates in the process, though it does 
but a small amount compared with the lungs, the proportion being 
not more than one to forty. In some lower animals, as in the frog, a 
much larger amount of respiratory work is done by the skin. 


LUNG EXERCISE . 


241 


HYGIENE OF RESPIRATION, 


Under this head we shall dwell specially on such portions of the 
subject as pertain particularly to the lungs, leaving the hygiene of the 
air and the subject of ventilation for more complete and explicit con¬ 
sideration in a separate chapter. 

Lung Exercise. —No part of the body is susceptible to greater 
improvement from systematic exercise, or suffers greater detriment 
from neglect of exercise. When the lungs are not well expanded 
habitually, they gradually lose, to some degree, their elasticity, so that 
the power to expand them is lost. 

In the physical examination of 
hundreds of chests we have had 
occasion to notice, in scores of in¬ 
stances, the almost total loss of pow¬ 
er to expand the chest. If asked 
to do so, the patient would shrug his 
shoulders, perhaps elevate them as 
high as possible, and make a despe¬ 
rate attempt to get a little more air 
than usual into his lungs, accom¬ 
plishing but very little in that di¬ 
rection, however, as the tape-line 
placed about the chest showed no 
appreciable increase in size. We 
have often found persons in this 
condition, whose chests ought to 
have measured two to four inches 
more when filled than after inspiration. 

The Spirometer. —The use of the spirometer is an excellent 
means of noting the change which can be made in the vital capacity 
of the lungs by systematic exercise persevered in daily for months. 
This instrument is shown in Fig. 119. As it is very simple, it can be 
made by any tinsmith at an expense of a few shillings. The instru¬ 
ment consists of two tin vessels, one inverted inside the other. The 
larger one should be nearly filled with water, and should have a small 
tube passing up through the center nearly to the top. This should 
communicate with a flexible tube outside, to the end of which is at- 



Fig*. 119. Spirometer, a. Inner vessel, 
with which the inhaling tube communicates; 
b. Outer vessel containing water; c. Scale in¬ 
dicating the number of cubic inches inhaled. 


16 









































































































242 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY , AND HYGIENE, 


tached a mouth-piece which may consist of a short glass tube with a 
good-sized bore. By blowing into the tube the inner vessel will be 
made to rise, and the amount of air expelled will be indicated by a 
scale accurately determined by previous calculation or experiment, 
and marked on the outside. If the inner vessel is eight inches in di¬ 
ameter, a scale may be made with lines one-tenth of an inch apart, 
each of which will represent five cubic inches of air. A person five 
feet high ought to be able to raise the scale three inches and a half 
after taking a full inspiration. A person six feet high should be 
able to raise it five inches. 

By the daily practice of lung gymnastics as described in the chap¬ 
ter on exercises, a person may increase his vital capacity from a few 
inches to many times as much. 

When a person is weary, and feels exhausted from sedentary em¬ 
ployment, the practice of deep and prolonged respiration with the 
chest well expanded, the shoulders back, and the spine erect, will be 
exceedingly refreshing. 

The great advantage of abundance of lung exercise is well seen in 
the fact that professional singers suffer less from pulmonary difficul¬ 
ties than others. A medical professor of St. Petersburg recently ex¬ 
amined the chests of more than two hundred professional singers in 
that city, and found their chests better developed than those of the 
majority of persons, and an almost entire absence of lung diseases. 

Corset Choking. —Choking is keeping air out of the lungs; at least, 
that is a practical definition of the word. It makes no difference to the 
lungs and no difference to the blood, whether the life-giving oxygen is 
kept out by confining the respiratory apparatus at its lower or its upper 
part. The result is precisely the same in either case. A man who ties a 
rope around his neck and kills himself by choking is called a suicide. 
A young lady who does essentially the same thing by lacing her waist, 
only taking a little longer time for it, is considered extremely fashion¬ 
able. Pure air is the first and the last desideratum of human life. In¬ 
dependent life begins with the first breath, and ends with the last act of 
respiration. A human being lives in proportion as he breathes. Frogs 
and lizards are sluggish because they breathe little. Birds are more vig¬ 
orous in their movements because of the wondrous capacity and activity 
of their lungs. So with human beings. Need we suggest that those 
feeble-minded creatures who emulate each other in compression of the 
waist—thus curtailing the breathing power—are like frogs and lizards 


POISONOUS CHARACTER OF EXHALED AIR. 


243 


in their capacity for appreciating the “joy of living’’? or that their 
organs of cerebration may be as diminutive as their waists ? 

The evils of corset-wearing have already been dwelt upon quite 
fully, and we will not recapitulate here; but we wish to call special 
attention to three ways in which the use of corsets, whether worn 
extremely tight or not, acts injuriously upon the lungs and respiration. 

1. By compression, the muscles of respiration lose their power 
to act, and waste away, so that strong, deep respirations become impos¬ 
sible. This is the reason why ladies feel, when deprived of their cor¬ 
sets, as though they would “ fall all in pieces.” 

2. By confinement in a stiff, unyielding case, the elastic cartilages 
which unite the ends of the ribs to the breast-bone so as to give free¬ 
dom of action become rigid, and thus prevent full expansion of the 
chest and filling of the lung’s. 

3. By compression of the lower part of the lung the upper part is 
crowded up against the inner border of the first rib, against which it 
is continually pressed, so that the constant motion and friction finally 
excite irritation which undoubtedly becomes the starting-point of many 
cases of consumption. 

Poisonous Character of Air Which Has Been Breathed. —As 

already shown, air which has been breathed contains a large proportion 
of carbonic acid, and besides this a poison much more deadly in its char¬ 
acter, organic matter, the exact nature of which chemists have never 
yet been able to determine. The carbonic acid is not itself greatly inju¬ 
rious in the quantities in which it is produced by breathing, but as it is 
always in about the same proportion to the organic matter, it is a relia¬ 
ble index to the amount of the latter poison, and so to the character of 
the air. It is the organic matter referred to which gives to close rooms 
the peculiar fusty odor with which every one is familiar. Persons who 
are confined in-doors most of the time become so accustomed to this 
warning of danger that they do not appreciate it, and hence do not heed 
it; but when a person who has been some time in the open air comes 
into a poorly ventilated room occupied by several persons, the odor is 
very perceptible, and the first impulse is to open the doors and windows 
and let the foul air out and pure air in, though the persons in the 
room may be wholly unconscious of the condition of things. This foul 
and pernicious poison is closely associated with the watery vapor of the 
expired air. In cold weather this vapor condenses upon the window- 
panes, and may be collected. The fluid thus collected forms a most fetid 


244 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


and disgusting mass after standing in an uncorked bottle for a few days. 

The experiments and researches of eminent scientists on the nature 
and effects of this poison as it exists in respired air seem to show quite 
conclusively that it is the principal cause of the numerous evil effects of 
breathing air which has been previously respired. 

Rapidity with which the Air is Contaminated by Breathing.— 

Experiments have shown that air which has been breathed over a few 
times contains ten per cent of carbonic acid, and of course a correspond¬ 
ingly large proportion of the organic poison, which is an increase from 
four parts in ten thousand of air, to one thousand parts in the same 
amount of air. According to the results which have been obtained by 
Parkes, Cameron, and numerous other investigators in this line of sani¬ 
tary science, a single breath, containing a cubic inch of carbon di-oxide 
renders unfit for respiration three cubic feet of air. It may be easily cal¬ 
culated from this, with the fact that we usually respire twenty times a 
minute, how long the air in a seven-by-nine bedroom may be made to 
last. Supposing such a room to be eight feet high and tightly closed, 
with one occupant in it, the air would remain fit to breathe less than ten 
minutes ! If bedrooms were air-tight, thousands more would have died 
from neglect or ignorance of this fact than have already filled premature 
graves in consequence. Fortunately for the human race, at least for the 
civilized part of it, our houses are seldom air-tight. A little air will find 
its way in, even through brick walls. Nature has provided us with an 
ample abundance of the greatest necessary of life, making it free to all, 
—for no despot ever put a tax upon the air his subjects breathed,—and 
even urging us to accept whether we desire it or not. 

The Effects of Breathing Impure Air. —Without going into de¬ 
tails these may be briefly summed up to be headache, dullness, nervousness, 
debility, consumption, and an aggravation of all other maladies. The 
headache of which school-children suffer so much is chiefly due to foul 
air. Consumption is well known to be most frequent in those whose 
habits or vocations are chiefly sedentary, or which keep them in a foul 
atmosphere. 

Experience in the late war showed that impure air was an important 
cause of rendering diseases fatal which otherwise would have been far 
less serious. At the first Sanitary Convention in this country, held at 
Detroit, Jan. 7 and 8,1880, under the auspices of the State Board of Health 
of Michigan, in the discussion of a paper on ventilation, an old army sur¬ 
geon who had charge of large hospitals during the war, related a very 


EFFECTS OF BREATHING IMPURE AIR 


245 


interesting experience illustrating the importance of securing to the sick, 
and especially to persons suffering with fever, an abundance of pure air. 
He stated that during the war he had charge of a large hospital in which 
at one time in the winter season he had under treatment three hundred 
and twenty cases of measles. Just at this time the hospital took fire and 
burned to the ground. The patients were placed in tents, and all but 
one or two recovered. He had no doubt that the number of deaths 
would have been thirty or forty, at least, had the patients remained in the 
hospital. He afterward sent one hundred men who were only slightly 
ill to the general hospital at Nashville, and seventy-five of them died. 
Upon visiting the hospital, he found it so poorly ventilated that the air 
was exceedingly foul, producing a sickening sensation when he had only 
been in it for a few minutes. The Doctor concluded by remarking that 
he regarded pure air and water as most important agents, and believed 
them to be capable of controlling the ravages of raging disease. 

The best methods of receiving an abundance of pure air by ventilation, 
the amount necessary for each individual, and other questions of impor¬ 
tance pertaining to this subject are considered in another chapter. 








24 G 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE . 


THE DIGESTIVE APPARATUS. 







Fig:. 120. The Alimentary Canal, a. (Esopha¬ 
gus; 6. Stomach; c. Cardiac Orifice; d. Pylorus; 
Small Intestine; /. Bile Duct; gr. Pancreatic Duct: 
A. Ascending Colon; i. Transverse Colon; j. De¬ 
scending Colon; k. Iiectum. 


The Alimentary Canal.— 

Fig. 120. The digestive appa¬ 
ratus consists of a long, tort¬ 
uous tube, the digestive or ali¬ 
mentary canal, to which are 
appended various accessory or¬ 
gans. 

The alimentary canal is about 
thirty feet in length, and is lined 
throughout with mucous mem- 
brane, which is variously modi¬ 
fied, according to its location. 
Each end of the canal is guard¬ 
ed by a circular muscle, the up¬ 
per opening, the mouth, being by 
this means opened or closed at 
pleasure, while the lower is in¬ 
voluntary in its action, only 
opening when overcome by force 
applied from above, a wise pro¬ 
vision of nature to antagonize 
the influence of gravitation upon 
the contents of the bowels, and 
to retain the same during sleep 
or other periods of unconscious¬ 
ness. This canal, which at an 
early period of development in 
human beings—as permanently 
in some simple animal forms—is 
merely a straight tube, in the 
fully developed individual be¬ 
comes so modified as to present 
at least five distinct portions, 
each of which possesses peculiar 
and important functions, and 












THE MOUTH—THE TEETH. 


247 


hence requires separate description, together with the several accessory 
organs which are connected with them. Although a more detailed clas¬ 
sification is possible, for our purpose it will be sufficient to consider the 
alimentary tube as divided into the mouth, oesophagus, stomach, small 
intestine, and large intestine , or colon . 



Fig 1 . 121. The Mouth. 6. Mouth of duct from the 
Parotid Gland; 7. Koof of mouth; 8. Posterior Nares; 9. 
Fauces; 10. Uvula; 11. Tonsils; 13. Tongue. 


The Mouth. —The 

mouth, the upper portion 
of the canal, guarded by 
the circular muscle of the 
lips, contains the teeth and 
tongue, and presents in its 
•mucous membrane the ori¬ 
fices of the ducts of three 
pairs of secreting organs, 
known as the salivary 
glands. The back part of 
the mouth, usually known 
as the pharynx, communi¬ 
cates through the posterior 
nares with the nasal cav¬ 
ity ; through the Eustachian canals, with the ears; through the 
upper end of the larynx, with the lungs: and through another open¬ 
ing at its extreme back part, with the stomach, by means of a canal 
known as the oesophagus. See Fig. 121. 

The Teeth.—Each tooth has three parts, a crown, a root, or fang, 
and a neck. The crown is the part which appears above the gum. 
It is covered with a hard, dense substance, the hardest in the body, the 
enamel, which is in turn protected by a very thin covering not more 
than of an inch i* 1 thickness, the object of which is to protect 

the enamel from the action of acids. The enamel prevents wear of 
the teeth in chewing hard substances. Its density varies much in dif¬ 
ferent persons, often becoming soft in consequence of disease. The 
interior of the tooth presents a cavity which is filled by what is termed 
the pulp, which is made up of delicate blood-vessels and nerves enter¬ 
ing the tooth through an opening for the purpose in one or more of 
the roots. The hard part of the tooth is chiefly made up of a bony 
substance called dentine, which is identical with ivory. The smaller 
teeth have but one fang, the larger two, or even three. The neck is 
simply the slight constriction between the crown and root. 


248 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY , AND HYGIENE. 


The Milk Teetll. —Two sets of teeth are furnished most persons, 
some being so fortunate as to acquire a third in advanced age. The 
first set, called temporary or milk teeth, are twenty in number, ten in 
each jaw, consisting of four incisors, two cuspids,—sometimes called 
canine teeth, also eye-teeth in the upper jaw, and stomach-teeth in the 
lower,—and four molars, or double teeth. These are developed in the 

following order between 
the ages of seven months 
and two years : At seven 
months, the two central 
incisors, or front teeth; 
at eight months, the other 
two incisors; at one year, 
the first molars ; at one 
year and a half, the cus¬ 
pids ; at two years, the 
second molars. See Fm 

o* 

122 . 

The Permanent Teeth. 

—Between six and seven 
years the permanent teeth, 
which number thirty-two 
in all, sixteen in each jaw, 
begin to appear. The 
permanent teeth comprise 
the same teeth as the temporary, with four small molars and two large 
ones in each jaw in addition. See Fig. 123. The first permanent 
teeth which appear are the first of the large molars, which come just 
back of the temporary molars, at about six and one-half years. At 
seven the central incisors are thrown off*. The other incisors disap¬ 
pear the eighth year. In the ninth and tenth years the temporary 

molars give place to the permanent small molars. At twelve the cus¬ 
pids are changed. During the thirteenth year the second large mo¬ 
lars appear ; between the seventeenth and twenty-first years the set 
is made complete by the appearance of the third large molars, or 
w T isdom-teeth. The latter teeth are apt to decay early. The teeth 
in the lower jaw are generally developed somewhat earlier than those 
of the upper jaw. The roots of the first set of teeth are absorbed, 
and probably help to form the second set. 

It is important that mothers should be familiar with the proper 


3 3 2 1 



5 4 3 2 1 


Fig 1 . 122. The Temporary or Milk Teeth. The cut 
shows at 1. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 the rudiments of the Per¬ 
manent Teeth. 










THE (ESOPHAGUS. 


249 


time for development of the several teeth, especially those of the first 
set, as many of the maladies of children are connected with “ teethino 1 ” 
and may often be prevented by proper attention to the teeth. 



Fig". 123. The Permanent Teeth. The cut shows how each 
tooth is supplied with nerves and blood-vessels from the same 
nerve trunks and arteries which supply other parts of the face. 


Tlie (Esophagus. —This organ, commonly called the gullet, or 
meat-pipe, is a muscular canal about nine inches in length, extending 
from the back part of the mouth to the left upper portion of the 
stomach. Its walls contain two layers of muscular fibres, the outer 
layer running longitudinally, or lengthwise of the tube, the fibres of 
the other beino: circular in arrangement. When not in use, the walls 
of the oesophagus lie in contact, so that there is no opening. At the 
lower end, the circular fibres are sufficiently thickened to form a 
sphincter muscle, by means of which the contents of the stomach are 
prevented from escaping upward. 








250 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY , AND HYGIENE. 



Fig. 124. The Stomach, with a portion of the Duo¬ 
denum attached. 


The Stomach. —This, 

though one of the most im- 
portant, is by no means the 
(ssential organ of digestion, 
as was formerly supposed. 
Contrary to the old view, 
it is now understood that 
the stomach is only one of 
a series of organs which 
take part in the work of 
digestion, each of which has 
an important function to 
perform, as necessary in its 
place as that of any other. 

The stomach may be briefly described as a hollow muscle. It is 
simply an expansion cf the alimentary canal, which in the oesophagus 
is reduced to a narrow tube, but at the lower extremity of that organ 
abruptly expands into a pear-shaped viscus nine to twelve inches in 
length, and four to five inches in width, in its broadest part. It is 
capable of holding one to two quarts, but it will allow of consider¬ 
able distension, so as to be made to hold much more than this quan¬ 
tity. 

In early infancy, the stomach is a mere spindle-shaped expansion 
of the digestive tube; but as the individual advances in age, 
it becomes more irregular in shape, its lower border being convex, 
while its upper is concave in outline, as may be seen by reference to 
Fig. 124. 


The walls of the stomach are made up of the outer serous coat, 
next to which is the muscular coat, made up of three distinct layers, 
the outer of which, like that of the oesophagus and of the whole ali¬ 
mentary canal, is longitudinal, the next inner layer being made up of 
circular fibres, and, in addition, still another set of fibres peculiar to 
the stomach, running in an oblique direction. Within the muscular 
coat, and lining the organ, is the mucous membrane, which, in addition 
to the usual characteristics of a mucous membrane, presents peculiar 
glandular structures, which have received the name of peptic glands, 
from the character of their secretion. These glands are tubular in 
structure, and are found in all parts of the stomach, but most abun¬ 
dantly in the left, or cardiac end of the stomach, the whole number 
being estimated at five millions. 

O 





THE STOMACH. 


251 


Besides its peculiar glands, the gastric mucous membrane con¬ 
tains a remarkable arrangement of blood and lymphatic vessels 
designed to produce rapid absorption of liquids received into the stom¬ 
ach or prepared for absorption by the process of digestion. Cover¬ 
ing the mucous membrane of the stomach everywhere, and lining 
its tubular glands, is a layer of living cells, known as epithelial cells, 
or epithelium. It is to these living, active molecules of life that the 
vital functions of this organ are chiefly due. By them are formed 
both the mucus which protects the surface of its delicate membranous 
lining, and the gastric juice for the solution of the food in gastric di¬ 
gestion. The epithelium itself also protects the membrane upon which 
it rests. 

At the lower end of the stomach is a narrow orifice at which the 
circular muscular fibres are much thickened, forming a sphincter 
muscle; this is known as the pylorus, which literally signifies, “gate¬ 
keeper.” The relative position of the stomach and of the other 
digestive organs may be readily seen by reference to Plate VII. 

The Small Intestine. —The pylorus forms the division between 
the stomach and the small intestine, which constitutes by far the 
greater portion of the alimentary canal, being about twenty feet in 
length. Its convoluted form, as seen in the diagram already referred 
to, is necessitated by its great length, which, together with the several 
functions which it performs, makes it by far the most important of 
the different portions of the digestive apparatus. See Fig. 120. 

That portion of the small intestine joining the stomach is called the 
duodenum, which is about ten inches in length, and broader than the 
rest of the small intestine. In structure,' the small intestine has the 
same general plan as that observed in the stomach; viz., an external 
serous coat, the peritoneum , then the longitudinal and circular mus¬ 
cular layers, and an inner lining of mucous membrane with its glands 
and epithelium. The mucous membrane of the small intestine pre¬ 
sents a variety of glands, together with peculiar and remarkably 
well adapted structures for increasing the rapidity of absorption, 
known as villi. Figs. 125, 126, and 127. 

The Liver and Pancreas. —Fig. 128. In close proximity to the 
duodenal portion of the small intestine are two large glands, the liver 
and the pancreas, each of which communicates with the intestine by a 
duct, the two ducts having a common orifice in the mucous membrane 
of the duodenum, a little more than five inches below the stomach. 


ANATOMY , PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


A-jfJ 



The Colon. 

—At its lower 
extremity, the 
small intestine 
c o m m u nicates 
with a greatly 
expanded p o r- 
tion of the ali¬ 
mentary canal, 

called the colon. The point of junction between these two portions is 
upon the right side, near the groin, and is guarded by a peculiar 
structure of the mucous membrane known as the ileo-coecal valve. 
The colon is about five feet in length. It consists of the ascending, 
transverse, and descending portions, the last-named part having at its 


Fig 1 . 12b. Villi of intestines slightly magnified. 1. A Solitary Gland; 
2. Agminated or Clustered Gland. 


# 



Fig 1 . 126. The Villi of the intestinal mucous membrane. 14. Artery; 

15. Vein; 16. Lacteal Vessels; 17. Lacteal Absorbents; 18. Venous Absorbents. 

lower extremity the rectum. The peculiar structure of the colon is 
such as to well fit it for completing the process of digestion. Like 
the stomach and the small intestine, the colon has also its muscular 
and mucous coats, the latter containing various glands, most of which 
are excretory in character. The position of the colon and of its sev¬ 
eral portions will be readily seen by reference to Plate VIII. 

The Digestive Juices. —The apparatus of digestion thus far de¬ 
scribed is chiefly mechanical in its operation, serving to comminute 

























THE DIGESTIVE JUICES. 


253 


and transport the food. In some animals, as in some species of birds, 
this is the most essential part of the work of the stomach. In man 
and most animals, another class of agents is required ; viz., a variety 
of fluids capable of reducing to a soluble and liquid condition the 

several elements of food, thus prepar¬ 
ing them for absorption. We find 
these several fluids produced in the 
human digestive apparatus at the .sev¬ 
eral points where they can accomplish 
the work required of them in the most 
efficient manner. They are five in 
number, and may be briefly described 
as follows:— 

The Saliva. —The first of the di¬ 
gestive fluids is formed by the three 
pairs of salivary glands located in the vicinity of the mouth and con¬ 
nected with it by a system of ducts, through which the salivary 
fluid is conducted into its cavity. As found in the mouth, the saliva 
is a mixed secretion, containing, in addition to the products of the 
three pairs of glands, mucus from the membrane lining the oral 
cavity. It is a clear, limpid fluid, slightly alkaline in character, and 
is produced in abundance by frugivorous and herbivorous animals. 
Carnivorous animals 
produce it in scanty 
quantity, having little 
need for it, as their food 
rarely contains the par¬ 
ticular elements which 
the saliva is designed 

to aid in diorestino-. The 
o o 

quantity of saliva se¬ 
creted by the human 
salivary glands is about three pints in twenty-four hours, of which 
about one-half is formed during digestion. 

The Gastric Juice. —This is an acid fluid formed only during 
digestion, by the peptic glands of the stomach. It is produced in 
great abundance, amounting, in twenty-four hours, to twelve or four¬ 
teen pints. Its activity as a digestive agent is due to a peculiar 



Fig-. 128. A. Pancreas; B. Duodenum; C. Spleen. 



Fig-. 127. 1. Folds of the intestinal 
mucous membrane; 2. Tubular Glands; 
3. Mouths of the tubular glands. 




254 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY , HYGIENE. 


principle which it contains, known as pepsin, which can he readily 
separated from the gastric juice, and can be extracted from the mu¬ 
cous membrane of the stomach after death. Large quantities of pep¬ 
sin are manufactured in this way from the stomach of the hog. One 
firm with which we are acquainted employs for this purpose over 
three hundred hog stomachs daily. A similar principle is extracted 
from the lining membrane of the gizzard of fowls; and an enterpris¬ 
ing foreigner has recently utilized the stomach of the ostrich for the 
same purpose. 

The acidity of the gastric juice seems to be a condition necessary 
for the efficiency of pepsin, its active principle; but physiologists 
have not yet been able to determine the exact nature of the acid to 
which this property is due. It is most probable that pepsin itself, when 
existing in its normal organic combination, possesses acid properties. 

The Pancreatic Juice. —This fluid, which so nearly resembles 
the saliva that it was once called “ abdominal saliva,” is the product 
of the pancreatic gland, which resembles the principal salivary glands 
in structure as closely as does its secretion the salivary secretion. 
This fluid is secreted only during digestion, and is then produced in 
considerable quantity, although the amount formed in twenty-four 
hours, or the quantity necessary for the digestion of a given amount 
of food, has not been ascertained. Like the saliva, the pancreatic 
juice is alkaline in character, and has an important office to perform 
in the digestion of certain of the elements of food. 

The Bile. —This fluid, usually considered an excretion, also seems 
to possess certain useful properties as a digestive agent. It is 
strongly alkaline, of a greenish color and bitter taste, and is produced 
most abundantly during digestion, although its secretion continues in 
limited degree during the intervals of digestion. This fact well ac¬ 
cords with the compound nature of the fluid, it being both a secretion 
and an excretion, the latter function evidently requiring continuous 
activity, while as a secretion its activity is demanded only at in¬ 
tervals. 

The bile, in company with the pancreatic juice, enters the duode¬ 
num at a point about five inches below the stomach, so that, contrary 
to the old views of digestion, the bile is found in the stomach only 
under very exceptional circumstances. 

The Intestinal Juice. —This, the most complicated of all the di¬ 
gestive juices, is the product of the activity of the numerous and 


THE ELEMENTS OF FOOD. 


255 


varied glands found in the mucous membrane of the intestines. 
Being a mixture of the secretion of a number of different glands, the 
intestinal fluid is of a compound character, which well fits it for its 
varied functions, as will be seen when we come to consider the physi¬ 
ology of digestion. 

THE PHYSIOLOGY OF DIGESTION, 

The Chemistry of Di gestioil. —While the numerous and really 
remarkable changes which take place in digestion are by no means 
chemical in character, in the sense in which the word is generally 
understood, yet we may allow the term if we understand that by it is 
meant, in this connection, not the reactions which take place in dead 
matter in obedience to the laws of chemical affinity, and which the chem¬ 
ist can command at will in his laboratory, but a living chemistry, work¬ 
ing, through the laws of organized or living matter, changes infinitely 
more wonderful than any chemist can produce, and which he is power¬ 
less to imitate except through the same agencies. 

Let it be understood, then, that digestion is not a chemical, but a 
vital process. Before the process was understood as well as it now is, 
the changes wrought were supposed to be those of fermentation, to which, 
indeed, the process is in some degree analogous ; but we now know that 
fermentation occurs in conjunction with digestion only as an incidental 
and abnormal—though, unfortunately, a very common—process. 

The Elements of Food. —A correct understanding of the philos¬ 
ophy of digestion and its derangements cannot be obtained without 
a knowledge of the nature of food and of its relation to the digestive 
organs in general, and to each of the digestive j uices. The demand for 
food is created by the wearing out of the tissues by the vital activities 
in which they are employed. Every vital action, no matter how slight, 
is performed at the expense of certain portions of the living tissues. 
New material is constantly required to supply the want created by this 
waste. As there is a great diversity in the character of the several 
tissues of the body, it is necessary that the food should contain a variety 
of elements in order that each part may be properly nourished and re¬ 
plenished. Classified according to their relation to the digestive organs, 
the elements of food may be divided into the following classes :—• 

1. Farinaceous and saccharine. 2. Albuminous. 

3. Fatty. 4. Indigestible. 


256 


ANATOMY , PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


These elements are sometimes found in an isolated state; but ordi¬ 
narily they are combined in varying proportions. Nearly all food con¬ 
tains a larger or smaller proportion of each. 

For description of the ^several classes of food, see chapter on “Food 
and Dietetics.” 

Action of tlie Saliya. —The saliva contains a peculiar organic 
principle which possesses the property of converting starch into sugar. 
This property of the saliva can be studied at will in the following man¬ 
ner : Place in the mouth a fragment of a dry cracker containing no 
sugar, or a small portion of well-boiled rice. Now chew it for five min¬ 
utes. It will be observed that after the first few seconds it begins to 
have a perceptible sweet taste, which increases as the mastication is con¬ 
tinued. A quantity of pure starch treated in the same manner will 
secure the same result. Evidently, sugar is formed during the chewing, 
as it did not exist in the starch before it was masticated. While under¬ 
going the process of chewing, the saliva was brought in contact with 
the starch, and the change noted was effected. Further proof of this 
change is afforded by the chemist, by means of the chemical test for 
sugar. If a quantity of starch be submitted to the test referred to, be¬ 
fore coming in contact with the saliva, it will be found that it contains 
no sugar. If the same test be applied after the starch has been mixed 
with saliva for a few moments, an abundance of sugar is found. This 
experiment we have often made in the presence of an audience, in illus¬ 
trating lectures on digestion, and with effects clearly visible to all. It 
should be mentioned that the saliva has the same effect outside of the 
body as in the mouth, provided that the proper temperature is maintained. 

It has been recently discovered that most of the fluids of the body 
possess the power of converting starch into sugar in some degree. It 
was formerly supposed that the action of the saliva ceased as soon as 
the food entered the stomach, on account of the presence of the acid of 
the gastric juice; but recent investigations seem to show that this is an 
error. 

The secretion of saliva is excited by the presence of food in the 
mouth, or by any sweet, acid, or other sapid substance. Even the odor 
of agreeable foods will excite the secretion very strongly. It is also in¬ 
creased to a considerable extent by the act of chewing, even if the article 
chewed does not possess either sapid or odorous properties. 

Action of the Gastric Juice. —After many years of patient study 
and experimentation, physiologists have at last arrived at a quite accu- 


ACTION OF THE GASTRIC JUICE. 


257 


rate knowledge of the nature of the gastric juice and of its action upon 
the food. About the first knowledge gained was by an ingenious ex¬ 
perimenter who inclosed different kinds of food in small perforated 
wooden tubes which he swallowed, and afterward vomited. He found 
that albuminous substances were dissolved in the stomach, so that the 
wooden tubes containing such foods were vomited empty, while those 
containing starch and fatty substances remained unchanged. Some 
years later, a most remarkable opportunity for the study of the gastric 
juice and its action was afforded by a serious accident suffered by a young 
Canadian. While hunting, he received in his side the full charge of a 
gun loaded with buck-shot and fired at the distance of a few yards. 
An immense rent was made in his body, which exposed not only the 
lungs but the inside of the stomach. Fortunately, the wounded man 
fell into the hands of Dr. Beaumont, an unusually intelligent physician, 
by whose skillful care, together with his own powerful constitution, he 
was restored to health after many months of suffering and imminent 
peril to life from the extensive sloughing of the soft parts, with injured 
ribs and cartilages, being finally left with a large opening through the 
abdominal wall into the stomach. Through this opening the food was, 
at first, expelled after each meal, unless retained by a bandage ; but 
after the lapse of a few months, thoughtful nature drew a membranous 
curtain before it, when the injured man suffered no further inconven¬ 
ience, although he could expel food through the opening at will, and 
often performed the experiment of drinking a quart of milk and pouring 
it out through the abdominal opening. The accident served to in no 
way interfere with his general health, and according to late accounts he 
is still living in Canada, though very old. 

Dr. Beaumont was not slow to embrace this excellent opportunity 
for observation and study, and retained St. Martin for several months, 
and at intervals for a number of years, for the purpose of experiment 
and investigation. Allowing him to eat various articles, he had but to 
push aside the little curtain, and the long-studied mystery of stomach- 
digestion appeared before his eyes, solved by an accident. Dr. Beau¬ 
mont soon discovered that the principal work of the gastric j uice is to 
dissolve the albuminous elements of food. This conclusion was also 
proven then, as it has been hundreds of times since, by the fact that a 
portion of pure gastric juice, collected from the stomach, possesses the 
property of dissolving albuminous substances, as meat, boiled eggs, the 
curd of milk, gluten, etc. In repeating the experiment, physiologists 

17 


258 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


have purposely produced similar openings in the stomachs of dogs, thus 
enabling them to collect a quantity of gastric juice for examination at 
any time desired. It is even possible to separate from the gastric j uice, 
or from the mucous membrane of the stomach of various animals, pepsin, 
the active principle of the gastric juice, and by means of it to experi¬ 
ment at pleasure upon its digestive properties. The pepsin which can 
be extracted from the stomach of a healthy dog has been estimated to 
possess sufficient digestive power to dissolve two hundred pounds of 
albumen, which would be equivalent to more than two thousand eggs. 

It has also been observed that the gastric juice of calves, horses, and 
other herbivorous animals is much less active in digesting animal food 
than that of carnivorous animals. 

The secretion of gastric juice is excited by the presence of food in 
the stomach, especially of semi-solid food, by the presence of the saliva, 
by sudden alternations of heat and cold, especially by the application of 
heat. A temperature less than that of the body causes its action to 
cease ; a slight elevation of temperature increases its activity. Alcohol, 
alkalies, and tannin antagonize its action, since they precipitate the pep¬ 
sin and the digested albuminous elements. Bile, which is occasionally 
forced upward into the stomach, has the same effect. Antiseptics of all 
sorts, that is, such substances as will prevent fermentation, also interfere 
with digestion. The metallic salts, as compounds of lead, zinc, iron, cop¬ 
per, etc., together with compounds of lime, magnesia, and other salts 
found in hard water, hinder digestion. 

It has been supposed that acids of all sorts aided digestion, which the¬ 
ory has led to the frequent recommendation of vinegar and other acids, 
especially with articles difficult of digestion. This theory has been op¬ 
posed by those who studied dietetics practically rather than theoretically, 
and now M. Charles Richet, a distinguished physician of Paris, conies 
forward with the assertion that he has demonstrated that acetic, tar¬ 
taric, and all similar acids diminish the secretion of gastric juice while 
they are in no sense substitutes for it, and so hinder digestion. 

Action of the Bile. —It has long been well known that the bile is 
an excrementitious fluid ; but more recent investigations show that it 
also has an important office to perform in the process of digestion. The 
alkaline character of the bile enables it to emulsify the fatty elements 
of food, and by thus permanently dividing it into very small particles, 
renders possible its absorption. It is probable, also, that the alkaline 
elements of the bile to some extent saponify the fats, and thus render 


ACTION OF THE DIGESTIVE JUICES. 


259 


them soluble in water. An additional office of this digestive fluid is to 
stimulate the absorption of the digested food, as well as to encourage ac¬ 
tivity of the intestinal mucous membrane. Deficiency in the quantity 
of the biliary secretion is a cause of constipation. 

Action of the Pancreatic Juice.— This peculiar digestive fluid is 
unlike those which have been previously mentioned, in that its action is 
not confined to a single element of the food. Its office is to digest both 
starch and fat. It also converts cane-sugar into grape-sugar, or glucose. 
It thus acts upon two of the three classes of food elements. 

The most recent experiments on the subject also seem to show that 
the pancreatic juice has power to act upon the albuminous elements of 
food, after they have first been acted upon by the gastric juice, so that 
it really completes the digestion of all the elements, though its chief 
function is, doubtless, the digestion of starch and fat. It has been shown 
very recently that removal of the spleen destroys the power of the pan¬ 
creatic j uice to digest albuminoid food elements. 

Action of the Intestinal Juice. —This juice, of still more complica¬ 
ted nature than the pancreatic, digests all three of the classes of digestible 
foods, acting alike upon the farinaceous, the albuminous, and the fatty 
elements of food. This complicated function well corresponds with the 
compound nature of the secretion, it being the mixed product of several 
glands. It should be remarked, however, that the intestinal juice seems 
to have little power to dissolve the elements of food unless they have first 
been acted upon, to some extent at least, by the other digestive j uices. 

Review of the Action of the Digestive Juices. —Having now con¬ 
sidered in detail the action of each of the digestive juices, we find that of 
the five separate fluids, three digest one each of the three classes of digest¬ 
ible food, while one of the remaining two digests two of the elements, and 
the other three, or the whole food. Considering the nutritive elements, we 
find that starch is digested by three separate juices, fats by three, and al¬ 
buminous elements by two, which would seem to intimate that the di¬ 
gestion of fats and farinaceous substances is more difficult than that of 

O 

albuminous elements, a fact which is abundantly confirmed by experi¬ 
ence in the treatment of disorders of digestion. 

The Digestive Process. —Before the middle of the last century 
very little was understood respecting the real nature of the phenomena 
which together make up the complete process of digestion. Since that 
time, the subject has been studied so carefully and patiently that physi- 


260 


ANATOMY , PHYSIOLOGY , AAo HYGIENE . 


ologists have now arrived at a pretty clear understanding of the matter. 
By far the greatest advances made in this study have been through the 
aid of several curious accidents by which the human stomach has been 
exposed to view during life, giving an opportunity for its inspection 
both when inactive and when in a state of activity from the presence of 
food. Numerous cases of this nature have been purposely produced in 
the dog by physiologists for further study, and hundreds of canines have 
suffered unwilling martyrdom at the shrine of science for the gratifica¬ 
tion of man’s thirst for knowledge on this subject. 

Having considered at some length the anatomy of the several di¬ 
gestive organs, the nature of the various digestive fluids, and the action 
of each upon the different elements of food, we are now prepared to 
consider in a connected manner the several processes of digestion. As 
before remarked, the digestive apparatus consists of a series of organs, of 
which the stomach is only one, and perhaps not the - most important, 
since life can long be sustained without the activity of the stomach, by 
alimentation through the lower bowels. In the complete digestive proc¬ 
ess each one of the series of organs acts successively upon the food ; 
and the arrangement is such that the prompt and thorough action of 
each or^an is essential to the successful action cf the succeeding ones. 

In order to simplify the idea of digestion in the mind of the reader, 
we may remark at this point a fact which is well sustained by the most 
careful study of the process, that digestion really depends upon two dis¬ 
tinct vital actions ; viz., secretion and muscular action. The alimentary 
canal is simply a muscular tube lined with mucous membrane, along 
which are situated, at different intervals, secreting organs which pour 
into its cavity their potent juices by means of which the contents of the 
tube are, if possible, rendered soluble and dissolved. The chief objects of 
the muscular canal seem to be to move the food along and bring it in 
contact with the active agents of digestion. With this general view' of 
the subject, let us now consider the several steps in the process. 

In order to form an idea of normal or healthy digestion, let us ob¬ 
serve the process in a healthy man, in whom all parts of it are purely 
physiological. He sits dov r n to his breakfast about one hour after ris¬ 
ing, having taken a little gentle exercise to arouse the activities of the 
system, and perhaps taken a small quantity of cold water a few min¬ 
utes before to supply the demand for fluid without taking too much at 
the meal and to excite the gastric and intestinal secretions, as w'ell as 
that of the liver, thereby insuring both an active digestion and proper 
activity of the bowels. 


STOMACH DIGESTION. 


261 


Mastication. —Our subject places in his mouth a small variety of 
foods containing in proper proportion the several elements of nutrition, 
and simply prepared, without the admixture of stimulating or irritating 
spices and condiments. As the food is slowly received, it is thoroughly 
masticated, being ground and triturated by a set of sound teeth, capable 
of vigorous use, and aided by the salivary secretion, until it is reduced to 
a pulpy mass. 

Insalivatioil. —At the same time that this grinding process is going 
on, the saliva, while also aiding the mechanical division of the food, is 
performing its specific work upon the starch of which the food is likely 
to be largely composed, converting it into sugar, so that the mass of food, 
or alimentary bolus as it is termed, becomes sweeter in flavor the longer 
it is chewed. 

Stomach Digestion. —After thorough mastication, each mouthful 
of food is in turn swallowed, being drawn down into the stomach by the 
muscles of the oesophagus, not simply dropping into that organ through 
an open tube, as many people suppose, the oesophagus being always 
closed, excepting only that portion which is occupied by the food in its 
passage to the stomach. Shortly after the food has reached that organ, 
its mucous membrane assumes, according to the observations of Beau¬ 
mont on the stomach of Alexis St. Martin, a rosy appearance, and there 
may be seen oozing from its surface the gastric juice in tiny drops like 
perspiration on the skin. The secretion increases rapidly, and begins at 
once its specific action on the albuminous elements of the food, which 
have been made accessible by thorough mastication, which has broken 
up the food structures in such a manner as to expose freely all its differ¬ 
ent elements. It may occur that the gastric secretion has been excited 
before the food has been swallowed ; in which case there is no delay 
whatever in the commencement of gastric digestion. 

Dr. Beaumont observed, in watching patiently at the curious win¬ 
dow-like opening in the stomach of St. Martin, that very soon after food 
is received into the stomach, the muscular structures of that organ be¬ 
gin to act, setting up a sort of churning process, turning the food over 
and over, squeezing, pressing, and variously manipulating it, moving it 
along its lower border toward the pylorus, and returning it along its 
upper border to the pouch-like left extremity into which it is first re¬ 
ceived from the oesophagus. 

If the food contains a large quantity of fluid, this is absorbed be¬ 
fore the process just described begins, since it is evident that too great 


262 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


an amount of fluid would effectually prevent such action on the food 
by the muscular walls of the stomach. It is obvious, also, that a con¬ 
siderable amount of bulk is needed in the food, to enable the stomach 
to operate upon it effectually. When milk is taken, it is quickly co¬ 
agulated by the gastric juice, and the whey being absorbed, the gas¬ 
tric juice acts upon the semi-solid masses formed. Soups, gruels, and 
all fluid foods, are rendered semi-solid by partial absorption of their 
watery constituent. 

At the same time that the gastric juice is acting upon its special 
elements, the digestion of starch continues through the activity of the 
mucus of the stomach, the saliva being neutralized by the gastric juice 
when the food reaches the stomach. Absorption of the portions of the 
food which are rendered liquid by digestion is all the time taking place, 
so that the semi-solid character of the mass is in a measure preserved. 

After this process has continued for a time, which is longer or 
shorter according to the nature of the food or the manner of its prep¬ 
aration, portions of food begin to pass out of the stomach. As the 
mass is moved along the lower border of the stomach toward the py¬ 
lorus, the orifice is opened a little, instead of being tightly closed as 
before, and small portions of food which have been properly acted 
upon by the stomach and the gastric juice, are allowed to pass through. 
If approached by portions of undigested food, the pylorus contracts 
strongly and allows none to pass. By this means the food is kept in 
the stomach until gastric digestion has been well completed. A curi¬ 
ous fact, however, rather difficult of explanation, is that the pylorus 
seems to possess a peculiar faculty for discovering whether substances 
brought in contact with it ought to be digested in the stomach or not. 
Unbroken seeds, as cherry stones, apple and grape seeds, etc., together 
with pieces of glass, stone, or other insoluble substances, are allowed 
to pass without opposition. After a time, the acidity of the food be¬ 
comes so great from the increase of gastric juice, that the stomach is 
excited to strong contraction, and the whole mass is crowded through 
the pylorus into the small intestine, where the work is completed. 
The length of time intervening between the ingestion of food and the 
emptying of the stomach varies from an hour or an hour and a half, 
when the article eaten is boiled rice or a mellow apple, to between 
five and six hours after eating fat pork or similar food. The figura¬ 
tive expression used by laborers who claim that pork is an excellent 
article of food because it “ sticks by the rib,” rendered literally, means 


ABSORPTION. 


that it is so difficult of digestion that the stomach has hard work to 
get rid of it after it has been received. 

Intestinal Digestion. —While stomach digestion has been going 
on, the gastric juice acting upon the albuminous elements of the food, 
and the digestion of the starch slowly progressing, the fatty elements 
of the food have undergone no changes except such as have resulted 
from the elevated temperature. Being to some extent freed from its 
association with the other elements, the fat floats upon the surface of 
the contents of the stomach, when fluid, but undergoes no further 
change until it comes in contact with the bile and pancreatic juice in 
the duodenum, when those fluids act upon it in the manner already 
described. The pancreatic juice also acts vigorously upon the portions 
of starch remaining undigested, and such portions of cane sugar as 
may have escaped digestion or absorption in the stomach. 

We now have all the elements of food acted upon by the saliva, 
gastric juice, bile, and pancreatic juice, but, lest any portion should es¬ 
cape undigested, nature provides the intestinal juice, which continues 
its action upon all the elements of food alike during the whole of its 
passage through the small intestine, and perhaps to some extent in the 
large intestine also. a 

During the process of intestinal digestion the food is slowly moved 
along through the twenty-five feet of small and large intestines, grad¬ 
ually becoming more and more solid by the absorption of the portions 
rendered fluid by the digestive juices, and also gradually being more 
and more completely deprived of its nutrient elements, until at last 
there is left in the lower part of the large intestine nothing but the in- 
nutritious residue of the food, mixed with the excrementitious prod¬ 
ucts of the intestinal mucous membrane, constituting alvine matter, 
or feces, which are destined in due time to be discharged from the 
body, such a discharge occurring normally as often as once in twenty- 
four hours, in most persons, and usually in the morning before or just 
after taking breakfast. 

Absorption. —The process of absorption begins almost as soon as 
food is taken into the mouth, and continues so long as any soluble nu¬ 
triment can be extracted from the alimentary mass. The work of ab- 
sorption is performed by two sets of absorbent vessels, minute veins, 
and lymphatics, here called lacteals. The venous absorbents take up 
whatever is held in solution, in the fluid taken into the stomach, and 
the principal portion of the digested farinaceous, saccharine, and albu- 


264 


ANATOMY , PHYSIOLOGY, AND nYGIENE. 


minous elements of food. The lacteals (See Fig. 129) absorb the 
emulsified fats, and some portion of the other elements. The products 
absorbed by the venous absorbents find their way into the general cir¬ 
culation through the hepatic vein, after passing through the liver, 
which is apparently a wise arrangement of nature, to provide for a sort 
of filtration before the more delicate tissues of the body are exposed to 

the action of whatever delete¬ 
rious elements the food may 
happen to contain. It is 
claimed by physiologists that 
the liver has also an impor¬ 
tant function to perform in 
completing the work of di¬ 
gestion, especially that of 
starchy substances. The 
food mingled with venous 
blood is conveyed to the 
liver by the portal vein. 
Those products which are ab¬ 
sorbed by the lacteals, reach 
the general circulation 

Fig:. 129. A portion of the Intestinal Canal show- p f p thoracic duel¬ 
ing Mesenteric Glands and Lacteals. tnrou^n ine tiioracic qucl, 

a long, slender lymph vessel 
which empties into the large vein from the arm on the left side. 

Oxygenation. —From the right heart the mixed products of diges¬ 
tion are sent to the lungs, where, by coming in contact with the oxy¬ 
gen of the air, the final change is effected, whereby heterogeneous or¬ 
ganized matter is converted into human blood, with properties and 
qualities to nourish and repair each of the great variety of delicate 
tissues found in the body. After the blood has passed through the 
lungs, neither sugar nor fat, which may abound in the blood before 
its oxygenation, are found. 

We have now traced through its various subdivisions the entire 
process of digestion, and found, until we came to the process of ab¬ 
sorption, that, as at first remarked, the process chiefly depends on two 
vital actions; viz., muscular action, and secretion. Muscular action 
masticates the food—by the aid of the passive accessory organs, the 
teeth—and mingles with it the saliva. Muscular contraction draws 

° # t 

the alimentary bolus from the mouth down into the stomach. Here, 













NERVOUS RELATIONS. 


265 


by the action of the muscles, it is churned up with the gastric juice, 
and finally squeezed through the pylorus into the small intestine, 
where, by the aid of muscles, it is mixed with the bile and the pancre¬ 
atic and intestinal juices, and is moved along, constantly coming in 
contact with fresh secreting and absorbing surfaces, until its digestion 
is complete. Even absorption is greatly aided by this muscular ac¬ 
tion, as the circulation in the absorbing parts is thereby quickened, so 
that larger quantities of fluid are taken up. 

Nervous Relations, —Before leaving the physiology of digestion 
it should be noted that both the secretion of the digestive fluids and 
the muscular action of the stomach and intestines are under the 
control of nerves. The digestive organs are all intimately connected 
with the general nervous system, so that any change in one is readily 
noted in the other. A demand for nutriment in the general system is 
referred to the stomach as hunger, just as the demand for liquor is re¬ 
ferred to the throat as thirst. Undigested food, or any other obnox¬ 
ious substances in the stomach, may excite a nausea which will relax 
and prostrate the whole system. In certain states of the system, and 
especially in young children, disorder of digestion may even produce 
convulsions. On the other hand, we see that agents which affect the 
general nervous system often influence the digestive organs indirectly 
with almost the promptness of agents addressed directly to them. 
The sight or smell of savory viands will “ make the mouth water ” by 
exciting the salivary secretion. Seeing or smelling disgusting objects 
will not infrequently cause prompt emesis, when there is nothing 
whatever in the stomach to occasion vomiting. In a case which came 
under our observation a few years ago, a gentleman was deprived of 
several meals by having had the misfortune to meet a very loathsome 
object. Whenever he attempted to eat, an image of the repulsive ob¬ 
ject came before his mind, and the immediate nauseating effects were 
so great as to make it impossible for him to keep anything in his 
stomach. On more than one occasion a patient has been made to 
vomit by being told that he had taken an emetic, when the dose he 
had swallowed was inert. 

Yomiting. —This is evidently a result of reflex nervous action in 
most cases. The exact mechanism of the act we do not need to ex¬ 
plain, except to say that the expulsive effort is made chiefly by the 
abdominal muscles and the diaphragm, the stomach taking little active 
part in the process; being powerfully compressed against the rigid 


266 


AX ATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY , AND HYGIENE. 


diaphragm, by the vigorous contraction of the abdominal muscles, its 
contents are forcibly expelled upward through the oesophagus, contrac¬ 
tion of the pylorus preventing exit from the stomach in a downward 
direction. 

Retching is an effort of the same character as vomiting, only less 
in degree. Gulping is a peculiar action by which air is drawn down 
into the stomach. It frequently precedes vomiting, having the effect 
to relax the sphincter muscle at the lower end of the oesophagus. 
Other abnormal actions connected with the stomach and bowels will 
be explained in connection with the diseases of these organs. 

HYGIENE OF DIGESTION, 

Probably no part of the vital economy is subjected to so much 
abuse as the digestive organs. The majority of people eat and drink 
what them fancy or tastes call for, not once taking into account any 
possible injury which may result to the stomach from what is put in¬ 
to it. The stomach is treated like a garbage box, and then is expected 
to do its duty, or rather to dispose of the indigestible messes imposed 
upon it promptly and uncomplainingly. If it lags a little hi weari¬ 
ness from overwork, instead of being allowed to rest like any other 
organ of the body when tired, it Is whipped up and goaded on by 
stimulants in the shape of spices, mustard, pepper, and other condi¬ 
ments, and often even with wine, beer, ale, brandy, and other artificial 
means of getting out of an organ more work than it is able to do. 

The importance of this subject demands serious attention. Its 
neglect has made the American people a nation of dyspeptics. We may 
therefore be justified in devoting considerable space to this topic, and 
going quite fully into the details of it, so that some practical benefit 
may be derived from its consideration. 

From our study of the anatomy and physiology of digestion we 
have acquired a pretty good knowledge of the principles of the sub¬ 
ject. Now let us apply these principles, and by so doing we shall be 
able to discover that many of the most common customs relating to 
eating and drinking are in direct opposition to the laws of healthy 
digestion. And first, as one of the most common of all dietetic errors 
we will mention— 

Hasty Eating. —That Americans are everywhere noted for the 
precipitate manner in which they bolt their meals, tumbling into their 


DRINKING AT MEALS. 


267 


stomachs indiscriminately material that is digestible and indigestible, 
and spending only enough time to reduce the food to a sufficient degree 
of fineness to allow it to be swallowed without choking,—often hardly 
-enough for safety in that regard,—is too well known to require special 
confirmation. The average American eats as he works, recreates, and 
does everything else, in fact, on the high-pressure system. He treats 
his mouth like a corn-hopper, and his stomach like a garbage box. 

The evils resulting from hasty eating may be enumerated as fol¬ 
lows :— 

1. From deficient mastication, the food is not properly divided, so 
that the digestive juices cannot gain access to its various elements. 

2. By being retained in the mouth too short a time, an insufficient 
^amount of saliva is mingled with it, so that salivary digestion cannot 
he properly performed. As the saliva is also a stimulus to the secre¬ 
tion of gastric juice, stomach digestion must necessarily be imperfect. 

3. Again, the food entering the stomach in a coarse, unmasticated 
state, may act as a mechanical irritant to the delicate lining of the 
stomach, and thus occasion congestion and gastric catarrh, one of the 
most common disorders of the stomach, and one which is often very 
obstinate in its nature. 

Drinking at Meals. —In addition to the evils which it occasions di¬ 
rectly, hasty eating induces an individual to drink largely of hot or 
cold liquids to wash the food into the stomach. Thus, two evils are as¬ 
sociated. Liquid of any kind, in large quantity, is prejudicial to diges¬ 
tion because it delays the action of the gastric j uice, weakens its digestive 
qualities, and overtaxes the absorbents. In case the fluid is hot, if in 
considerable quantity, it relaxes and weakens the stomach. If it is cold, 
it checks digestion by cooling the contents of the stomach down to a 
degree at which digestion cannot proceed. Few people are aware how 
serious a disturbance even a small quantity of cold water, iced cream, or 
other cold substance, will create when taken into a stomach where food 
is undergoing digestion. This process cannot be carried on at a temper¬ 
ature less than that of the body, or about 100°. Dr. Beaumont observed 
that when Alexis St. Martin drank a glassful of water at the usual tem¬ 
perature of freshly drawn well-water, the temperature of the food un¬ 
dergoing digestion fell immediately to 70°, and did not regain the proper 
temperature until after the lapse of more than half an hour. 

Of course the eating of very cold food must have a similar effect, 
making digestion very tardy and slow. If any drink at all is taken, it 


268 


ANATOMY , PHYSIOLOGY, AND . HYGIENE. 


should he a few minutes before eating, time being allowed for absorption 
before digestion begins, or an hour or two afterward. If the meal is 
mostly composed of dry foods, a few sips of warm or moderately hoi 
water will be beneficial rather than otherwise, taken at the beginning of 
the meal or at its close. The habit of drinking during the meal should, 
be discontinued wholly, and especially by those whose digestive powers 
are weak. If the diet is of proper quality, and the food is well masti¬ 
cated, there will be little inclination to eat too much. When the food is 
rendered fiery and irritating with spices and stimulating condiments, it 
is no wonder that there is an imperious demand for water or liquid of 
some kind to allay the irritation. 

Eating too Frequently. —One of the most pernicious customs of 
modern society is that of frequent meals. This custom is seen in its ex¬ 
treme development in England more clearly than in this country, five 
meals a day, including lunches, being there thought none too many. 
The idea seems to prevail that the stomach must never be allowed to be¬ 
come empty under any circumstances. In this country, three meals a 
day is the general custom, though more are often taken. Healthy di¬ 
gestion requires at least five hours for its completion, and one hour for 
rest before another meal is taken. This makes six hours necessary for 
the disposal of each meal. If food is taken at shorter intervals than 
this, when ordinary food is eaten, the stomach must suffer disturbance 
sooner or later, since it will be allowed no time for rest. 

Again, if a meal is taken before the preceding meal has been di¬ 
gested and has left the stomach, the portion remaining, from its long ex¬ 
posure to the influence of warmth and moisture which especially favor 
fermentation, is likely to undergo that change in spite of the preserving 
influence of the gastric juice, and thus the whole mass of food will be 
rendered less fit for the nutrition of the body, and the stomach will be 
liable to suffer injury from the acids developed. 

Eating between Meals. —This is a gross breach of the require¬ 
ments of good digestion. The habit many have of eating fruit, con¬ 
fectionery, nuts, sweetmeats, etc., between meals, is a certain cause of 
dyspepsia. No stomach can endure such usage. Those who indulge 
in this manner usually complain of little appetite, and wonder why 
they have no relish for their food, strangely overlooking the real 
cause, and utterly disregarding one of the plainest laws of nature. 

This evil practice is often begun in early childhood. Indeed, it is 
too often cultivated by mothers and the would-be friends of little 


IRREGULARITY OF MEALS. 


269 


ones, who seek to gratify them by presents of confectionery and 
other tid-bits of various sorts. Under such a regimen, it is not 
singular that so many thousands of children annually fall victims 
to stomach and intestinal diseases of various forms. In great num¬ 
bers of cases, early indiscretions of this sort are the real causes of 
fully developed dyspepsia in later years. 

Irregularity of Meals. —Another cause of this disease, which is 
closely related to the ones just mentioned, is irregularity respecting 
the time of meals. The human system seems to form habits, and to be 
in a great degree dependent upon the performance of its functions in 
accordance with the habits formed. In respect to digestion this is 
especially observable. If a meal is taken at a regular hour, the stom¬ 
ach becomes accustomed to receiving food at that hour, and is prepared 
for it. If meals are taken irregularly, the stomach is taken by sur¬ 
prise, so to speak, and is never in that state of readiness in which it 
should be for the prompt and perfect performance of its work. The 
habit which many professional and business men have of allowing 
their business to intrude upon their meal hours, quite frequently 
either wholly depriving them of a meal or obliging them to take it an 
hour or two later than the usual time, invariably undermines the best 
digestion, in time. Every individual ought to consider the hour for 
meals a sacred one, not to be intruded upon under any ordinary cir¬ 
cumstances. Eating is a matter of too momentous importance to be 
interrupted or delayed by ordinary matters of business or conven¬ 
ience. The habit of regularity in eating should be cultivated early in 
life. Children should be taught to be regular at their meals and take 
nothing between meals. This rule applies to infants as well as to 
older children. The practice of feeding the little one every time it 
cries is a most serious injury to its weak digestive organs. An in¬ 
fant’s stomach, though it needs food at more frequent intervals,—two 
to four hours according to its age,—requires the same regularity which 
is essential to the maintenance of healthy digestion in older persons. 
The irregularity usually practiced is undoubtedly one of the greatest 
causes of the fearful mortality of infants from disorders of the digest¬ 
ive organs, as appears in our mortuary reports. 

The subject of infant feeding is a very important one, and on this 
account we have devoted considerable space to it in the chapter on 
“Food and Dietetics,” which see. 


270 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY , AND HYGIENE . 


The Proper Number of Meals. —How many meals should foe 
taken by a person in health ? The answer to this question depends 
somewhat upon the habits of the individual, his occupation, number 
of hours of labor, etc. There is good reason to believe that for a 
large share of those who now take three to five meals a day, two- 
would be much better. According to Hippocrates, the ancient Greeks 
ate but two meals a day. This was the prevailing custom in olden 
times. Indeed, the modem frequency of meals is the outgrowth of a 
gradual losing sight of the true function of food and of eating, and 
making the gratification of the palate the chief object, instead of the 
nourishment of the body. It is distinctly a modern custom. That 
the system can be well nourished upon two meals a day is beyond 
controversy, seeing that not only did our vigorous forefathers require 
but two meals a day, but hundreds of persons in modern times have 
adopted the same custom without injury, and with most decided ben¬ 
efit. Students, teachers, clergymen, lawyers, and other literary and 
professional men, will be especially benefited by this plan. We have 
employed it for about fifteen years, and with great benefit. The spe¬ 
cial advantages gained by it are, 1. The stomach is allowed a proper 
interval for rest; 2. Sleep is much more recuperative when the stom¬ 
ach is allowed to rest with the balance of the body; 3. Digestion can¬ 
not be well performed during sleep. 

If six hours are allotted to each meal, and the proper length of 
time is allowed to elapse before going to sleep after the last meal, it 
will be found impossible to make any arrangement by which oppor¬ 
tunity can be secured for the necessary eight hours’ sleep at night. 
Not more than two meals can be taken when a person complies with 
all the laws of health. 

If more than two meals are required by any one, it is by those 
who are engaged for twelve or more hours per day in severe physical 
labor. Such persons are better prepared to digest a third meal than 
those whose occupation is mental or sedentary, and they may at least 
take it with less detriment, though we are still doubtful whether a 
third meal is needed, even for such. 

Eating when Tired. —This is one of the most certain causes of 
derangement of digestion, and one to which a very large number of 
cases of dyspepsia may be traced. The third meal of the day is al¬ 
most always taken when the system is exhausted with the day’s la¬ 
bor. The whole body is tired, the stomach as well as the rest. Tho 


EATING WHEN TIRED, 


271 


idea that by the taking of food the stomach or any other part of the 
system will be strengthened, is a mistake. When the stomach “ feels 
faint and tired ” at night, as many people complain, what it wants is 
not food, but rest. An eminent writer on indigestion says very truth¬ 
fully, “ A tired stomach is a weak stomach.” When the stomach feels 
“ weak and faint,” rest is what is demanded, and is the only thing that 
will do it good; yet many people insist on putting more food into it, 
thus compelling it to work when it ought to be allowed to remain in¬ 
active until rested. The arm wearies by constant exercise, and so 
does the stomach, which is largely composed of muscles as well as the 
arm. Both secretion and muscular activity must be much lessened in 
a tired stomach, and the habitual disregard of this rule must be dis¬ 
astrous to the best digestion. 

Violent exercise at any time just before or just after eating is in¬ 
imical to good digestion, for the reason already assigned when the ex¬ 
ercise is taken just before the meal, and because the vital energies are 
diverted to other parts—thus robbing the stomach of its necessary 
share—when the exercise is taken immediately after eating. An 
English physiologist performed an experiment which well illustrates 
the truth of this position. Having fed a dog his usual allowance of 
meat one morning, he took him out upon a fox hunt, and kept him 
racing over the country until night, when, having killed the animal, 
he examined his stomach at once and found the meat in the same con¬ 
dition in which it entered his stomach, no digestion having taken 
place. In another dog, fed with the same kind of food, but left quiet 
at home, digestion was found to be complete. 

The hurry and press of business among Americans is allowed to 
override every consideration of health. It seems never to enter the 
thoughts of the average business man that any time is required for 
digestion. Bushing to his dinner from the plow, the workshop, or the 
counting-room, he swallows his food with all possible dispatch, and 
rushes back to his work again, begrudging every moment spent in 
meeting the requirements of nature. Many years ago, it was a custom 
in Edinburgh to suspend all business in the middle of the day for two 
hours, so as to allow ample time for meals. A similar custom once 
prevailed in Switzerland, we have been informed; but we presume 
that such a sensible custom is now considered too old-fashioned to be 
tolerated. 

It should be remarked that severe mental labor immediately be¬ 
fore or after, and especially during meals, is even more injurious than 


272 


ANATOMY , PHYSIOLOGY , A AD HYGIENE . 


physical employment. The habit many business men have of anx¬ 
iously scanning the newspapers during their meals and when going to 
and from their places of business, is a bad one. A full hour, at least, 
should be taken for the midday meal; and if an hours rest can be se¬ 
cured before eating, improved digestion would well repay the time 
spent in re-inforcing the vital energies. For persons of weak diges¬ 
tion, the rest before eating is in most cases indispensable. 

The famous H Homme serpent (man snake), of Paris, who aston¬ 
ished the world by his agility and wonderful contortions, ate but two 
meals a day of vegetable food, and invariably abstained from food for 
twelve hours before performing, a plan which was undoubtedly mutu¬ 
ally advantageous to his muscles and his stomach, as his exercises re¬ 
quired great muscular effort. 

Sleeping after Meals. —While rest from accustomed exercise after 
eating is important, it should be noted that sleep at this time is equally 
as bad as vigorous exercise of either mind or body. Good digestion can¬ 
not take place during sleep. While it is true that digestion is an invol¬ 
untary act, it should be recollected that it is dependent upon the activ¬ 
ity of the nervous system for its proper performance. The same nerve 
which secures activity of the respiratory organs, the pneumogastric, 
controls the muscular activity of the stomach and intestines. During 
sleep, from the lessening of nervous activity both the respiration and the 
circulation are greatly lessened in vigor. It is but reasonable to suppose 
that the activity of the digestive organs is decreased at the same time, 
being controlled by the same nerves. Actual experiment shows this to 
be true. Most people who lie down and sleep an hour or two soon after 
taking food, awake feeling anything but refreshed. The suspension of 
the process to a considerable degree during sleep causes imperfect diges¬ 
tion with its numerous unpleasant symptoms. In the case of old people 
it may sometimes be beneficial, or at least not harmful, to secure a few 
minutes’ sleep after eating, before digestion is well begun, but it must not 
be lon£ continued. 

In order to secure the best conditions for digestion after eating, an 
individual should take gentle exercise of some kind, as walking, carriage 
or horseback riding While violent exertion seriously interrupts the di¬ 
gestive process, a moderate degree of physical exercise facilitates the 
process by increasing the muscular activity of the digestive organs and 
thus encouraging both secretion and absorption. 


LATE SUPPERS . 


273 


Late Suppers. —Eating late at night, when the muscular and nerv¬ 
ous systems are exhausted by the labor of the day, and then retiring 
soon to rest, is one of the most active dyspepsia-producing habits to 
which modern society is addicted. As before explained, “ a tired stom¬ 
ach is a weak stomach; ” and in addition, we may add, a sleepy stomach 
is a sluggish one. Secretion must of necessity be deficient in both quan¬ 
tity and quality, owing to the exhausted condition of the system; and 
with the further obstacle afforded to prompt digestion by the slowing of 
the vital operations during sleep, it is almost impossible that there 
should be other than disturbed digestion and disturbed sleep in conse¬ 
quence. It is under these circumstances that people often suffer with 
obstinate insomnia, bad dreams, nightmare, and similar troubles, from 
which they arise in the morning unrefreshed, and unrecuperated by 
Nature’s sweet restorer, the work of assimilation, by which repair takes 
place, having been prevented by the disturbed condition of the nerves. 

No food should be taken within three or four hours of retiring. 
This will allow the stomach time to get the work of digestion forward 
sufficiently to enable it to be carried on to completion without disturb¬ 
ance of the rest of the economy. The last meal of the day, if three 
meals are taken, should be a very light one, preferably consisting of 
ripe fruit and simple preparations of the grains. The custom which 
prevails in many of the larger cities of making dinner the last meal of 
the day, eating of articles the most hearty and difficult of digestion as 
late as six or even eight o’clock, is one that ought to be discountenanced 
by physicians. It is only to be tolerated at all by those who convert 
night into day by late hours of work or recreation, not retiring until 
near midnight. But in such cases, a double reform is needed, and so 
there can be no apology offered for this reprehensible practice on any 
physiological grounds. 

Too Many Yarieties of Food. —Many dyspepsias arise from the 
eating of too many kinds of food at the same meal, another growing 
custom in modern times which deserves to be distinctly condemned. At 
great dinners in honor of distinguished personages, when friends are to 
be entertained, and in the majority of well-to-do families as a general 
custom, the eaters are tempted to gluttony by having presented to their 
palates a great variety of complicated dishes, almost any one of which 
would be too much for the digestive organs of most inferior animals. 
On the occasion of the giving of a great dinner to some notable, we have 
known instances in which more than a hundred dishes were served in 

18 


274 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE, 


successive courses. Such gormandizing soon breaks down the most vig¬ 
orous digestive organs, since it adds to the labor of digesting food which 
is improperly cooked, a larger variety than the digestive juices are capa¬ 
ble of bringing into a fit state for absorption. Careful experiments have 
shown very clearly that different classes of food require a particular 
quality of digestive juices for their digestion. For instance, a gastric 
juice that will digest animal food the best, is inferior for the digestion of 
vegetable food, and vice versa. The obvious conclusion to be drawn 
from this fact is that the simpler the dietary, the more perfectly will the 
digestive process be performed. For persons whose digestive powers are 
naturally weak this is a matter of special importance. Such will find it 
well to avoid eating meat and vegetables together. Meat and grains 
may be taken together, but not meat and vegetables, by persons of 
weak digestion, the latter being much more difficult of digestion than 
either of the others. If the bill of fare taken at a single meal were con¬ 
fined to three or four articles of food, there would be fewer dyspep¬ 
tics scanning the newspapers for some patent nostrum to “ aid diges¬ 
tion.” 

Hot and Cold Bathing after Meals. —Especial mention should 
be made of the injury to the digestive organs quite certain to result 
from taking either a hot or a cold bath soon after eating, as few peo¬ 
ple are aware of the danger of laying the foundation for years of dis¬ 
comfort in this way. If the bath be a hot one, the stomach will be 
deprived of the blood necessary to support the rapid secretion of gas¬ 
tric juice for the digestion of the food, by the sudden relaxation of 
the capillaries and arterioles of the skin, drawing the blood to the sur¬ 
face of the body. A cold bath, on the other hand, or any sudden ex¬ 
posure to cold, may, by causing contraction of the blood-vessels of the 
surface of the body, cause sudden congestion of the stomach, which is 
equally fatal to good digestion. Very nearly the same danger exists 
from the taking of baths just before a meal. 

The practice very common among boys and young men, of going 
into the water in the summer time regardless of the condition of the 
stomach or of other states of the body, is a bad one. With many it is 
a very usual practice two or three times a week if not more often, to 
go at once into the water after the evening meal, not allowing even 
time for the work of digestion to become established. No bath in¬ 
volving any considerable portion of the body should be taken within 
two hours of a meal. 


OVEREATING. 


Errors in Quantity of Food. —If errors in the manner of taking 
food are active causes of indigestion, mistakes in quantity are still 
more potent in this direction. It should be noted, however, that er¬ 
rors of this class are very closely connected with errors in the manner 
of eating, and in the quality of food taken. It is generally true with 
physical as well as moral transgression, that one had habit implies an¬ 
other; and especially is this the case in reference to dietetic errors. 
A person who eats too fast is likely to eat more than is necessary; 
and the same is true if too large a variety of food is partaken of, or 
food rendered exciting and stimulating by seasoning with irritating 
condiments. 

Overeating. —Intemperance in eating is, in our opinion, responsi¬ 
ble for a greater amount of evil in the world than intemperance in 
drinking. We do not fear to make this statement, since we believe it 
can be clearly shown that intemperate eating is, in the first place, one 
of the most potent causes of intemperance in drinking, and, secondly, 
that it is one of the greatest obstacles in the way of the reformation 
of those who have become victims of alcoholic intemperance. 

If we may believe the statements of historians, gluttony is by no 
means a modern vice. Indeed, there is quite good ground for believ¬ 
ing that overeating, while a very general fault, is rarely if ever car¬ 
ried to the enormous excess to which some of the luxurious Roman 
emperors indulged, as for instance, the Emperor Maximus, who con¬ 
sumed forty pounds of flesh in a day; or Caligula, whose custom was 
to eat until compelled to desist from having distended his stomach to 
its utmost capacity, and then taking an emetic to enable him to re¬ 
peat his gormandizing. 

The evil consequences of excess in eating are at first simply im¬ 
perfect digestion, the overtaxed organs being unable to accomplish 
the complete digestion of the alimentary mass. In consequence of 
the delay which occurs, changes take place by which acids are devel¬ 
oped which irritate the mucous membrane, together with gases by 
which the stomach is distended and its muscular walls weakened and 
partially paralyzed. In course of time, inflammation of the gastric 
membrane is developed, and permanent dilatation of the stomach 
occurs. 

At first, an individual who overeats will be likely to accumulate 
flesh quite rapidly; but very soon the digestion becomes so much dis¬ 
turbed that no gain takes place, and, indeed, the patient not infre- 


276 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


quently becomes considerably emaciated even while daily taking large 
quantities of food. When the opposite is the case, the blood is filled 
with crude, imperfectly elaborated material, which, when assimilated, 
produces a poor quality of tissue. 

Eating too Little. —A far less common fault than that last men¬ 
tioned, is eating too little. The instances that occur are usually in 
the cases of those who have attempted to subject themselves to a rigid 
dietetic regimen for the prevention or cure of disease, and who, from 
having only a partial view of the subject, entertain extreme notions. 
By the weakening of the system which necessarily occurs when an 
insufficient amount of nutriment is received, the stomach also becomes 
weak and debilitated, its secretions and muscular efforts being greatly 
impaired in both quantity and quality. This is well seen in persons 
who have been long deprived of food. When allowed to eat, they are 
unable to digest but the smallest quantity of food; and though the 
system is famishing for nourishment, an amount of food equal to that 
taken at an ordinary meal would be almost as fatal as a dose of 
strychnia. 

How Much Should a Person Eat ?—Hundreds of times have we 
been asked this question; but we have never been able to give any 
other answer than might be suggested by the common sense of the 
questioner, without medical assistance. The only reply that can be 
made to this question is, just so much as the system needs and the 
digestive organs can digest. In general, an individual may take as 
much food as he can digest; but often there are conditions in which 
he cannot digest as much as he really needs. For instance, when an 
individual is called upon to exert all his energies of brain and muscle, 
to strain every nerve to its utmost to compass a certain object of 
great importance, to cope with an emergency, he may be for the time 
being quite unable to digest sufficient food to make good the waste 
that must necessarily occur. He will lose flesh and strength under 
such circumstances; and often a failure of the appetite at such a crisis 
indicates the inability of the stomach to digest, from the deficient se¬ 
cretion of gastric juice. It is on this account that persons who are 
for a time called upon to make great exertions often break down 
their digestion. Thinking that they need abundance of nutriment, 
which is true, they eat as heartily as when required to perform only 
their ordinary work, not considering their diminished power to digest 


QUANTITY OF FOOD REQUIRED. 


277 

and appropriate food, and in a short time find their digestive organs 
unable to digest well even a small amount of food. 

We are satisfied that it is in this way that many lawyers, physi¬ 
cians, and other professional men, break down. If, when called upon 
to do a large amount of extra work, the individual would lessen the 
quantity of food eaten, instead of increasing it, he would conserve his 
vital forces much more than by pursuing the opposite course. When 
required by the press of business to do extra work, often working for 
several days in succession with very little sleep, we have been in the 
habit for several years of limiting the amount of food taken to not 
more than half the usual allowance, and sometimes to even a less 
quantity. The result has invariably been all that could be desired; 
since, although we have often lost several pounds of flesh during an 
ordeal of this kind, when it is past, and we return to our usual 
routine of work, we bring back from the effort our digestion intact, 
and are able to digest the amount of food necessary for recuperation, 
so that a few days suffice to restore us to our usual weight, and with¬ 
out loss of either strength or time. 

It is evident that the diet of each individual must be regulated in 
quantity according to his occupation. It must also be adapted to his 
age. A man engaged in severe physical labor, while he really re¬ 
quires less food, may be able to dispose of more food than one who 
labors with equal intensity in some mental pursuit. The body is 
wasted much more rapidly by vigorous brain labor than by physical 
exercise. Indeed, it is asserted by our best authorities in physiology, 
that three hours of severe brain labor are equal in exhausting effects 
upon the system to ten hours of physical labor or muscular effort. It 
is evident, then, that a man who works his brain constantly for ten 
or twelve hours a day really needs more food to sustain his strength 
than a man who employs his muscles for the same length of time. 
But, as before remarked, the muscle laborer may be able to dispose of 
more food than the brain laborer, though he needs less, since his vital 
forces are not so completely exhausted by his work. In other words, 
the occupation of the muscle worker being less exhaustive than that 
of the brain worker, he can overeat with greater impunity than can 
the latter. Each should eat but the quantity actually required, if he 
would enjoy the maximum of health and vigor; but for the man 
whose vital energies are daily exhausted by mental effort, any excess 
in eating is certain to be most disastrous. We have examples of great 


278 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


literary men who have been great eaters; but it is a noticeable fact 
that these persons, in many instances, while celebrated for their pro¬ 
ductions, often worked very leisurely, their fame being really more 
justly attributable to brilliant genius than to great application. In 
several cases, too, as in that of Charles Dickens, who is said to have 
been a large eater, the hours spent in brain labor were chosen from 
the best of the day, many hours being spent in physical exercise, by 
which means the integrity of the digestive organs was maintained 
much better than would otherwise have been the case. In not a few 
instances, too, those great literary men who were noted eaters died 
early, their physical stamina being exhausted by the double draft 
made upon it. Newton, when engaged in the most severe portion of 
his wonderful labors in demonstrating the law of gravitation by com¬ 
putations respecting the orbit of the moon, confined himself to a spare 
diet of bread and water. 

The amount of food required by an individual, as already inti¬ 
mated, varies at different periods of life, according to the degree of 
vital activity. In infancy and childhood, when the vital activities 
are at their highest degree of intensity, when growth and develop¬ 
ment are to be maintained in addition to supporting the wastes of 
the system, the demand for food is greater in proportion to the size 
of the individual than at any subsequent time. In adult life, when 
waste and repair are about equally balanced, a sufficient amount is 
needed to make good the daily loss from the various mental, physical, 
and other vital activities, which can only be supported at the expense 
of tissue. Any larger quantity than this is excess. 

In old age, when the assimilative powers are weakened by declin¬ 
ing years, the amount of food which can be assimilated by the indi¬ 
vidual is even somewhat less than what is really needed; hence, as 
age advances, the quantity of food should be gradually diminished. 
Very many old people break down much sooner than they would 
otherwise do were they more careful in this regard. When they lay 
aside their vigorous, active life, they should also curtail the quantity 
of their food. By this act of temperance, they might preserve intact 
to a much later period the integrity of their digestive organs, and so 
add years to their lives. 

In not a few instances, the foundation of dyspepsia is laid by 
some mechanical injury, as a sprained ankle, a broken limb, or a se¬ 
vere bruise or cut, which requires rest from active exercise for a few 


QUANTITY OF FOOD REQUIRED. 


279 


weeks. Not considering the fact that much less food is demanded 
when an individual is not engaged in active labor of any sort than at 
other times, the individual continues to eat heartily, and soon finds, that, 
from sheer exhaustion, the digestive organs refuse to do their work. 
On this account it should be made a uniform custom to eat lightly on 
the weekly rest-day. The hearty Sunday dinners in which many 
people indulge, making the day an occasion of feasting rather than a 
rest-day, cannot be too much condemned. The custom is without 
doubt responsible for many other forms of Sabbath-breaking, as no 
individual can have a clear perception of right and a quick sense of 
wrong when laboring under the incubus of an overloaded stomach. 
For the hearty meal usually taken, it would be well to substitute a 
light one consisting mostly of fruits and grains. This plan, if pur¬ 
sued, would do away with much of the drowsiness in church, of which 
many people and not a few pastors have abundant reason to complain. 
The intellect would be much clearer, and so better able to appreciate 
the privileges and comforts of religion. The sooner people recognize 
the fact that stomachs have much to do with religion, and that true 
religion includes the government of the appetite, and frowns upon 
abuse of the stomach as well as upon abuse of a fellow-man, the bet¬ 
ter it will be for both their stomachs and their religion. We are not 
sure but that many gloomy theological dogmas were born of bad 
stomachs and inactive livers; and we are very certain that one of the 
best preliminary steps toward converting a sinner is to reform his 
stomach. 

Each individual must be to a considerable extent his own guide 
respecting the exact amount of food to be taken at a single meal. If 
the appetite has been so long abused that it is no longer a safe guide, 
then reason must rule. The individual should, at the beginning of 
the meal, determine just how much he will eat, and when the spec¬ 
ified quantity is taken, he must resolutely stop eating, leaving the 
table if necessary, to escape temptation. The practice of serving 
fruit, puddings, nuts, confectionery, and tidbits of various kinds, as 
“ dessert,” is a pernicious one. In the first place, it is an inducement 
to overeat, since it is quite probable that enough has been eaten be¬ 
fore the dessert is served. If the articles offered are wholesome, they 
should be served and eaten with the meal, as a part of it, and not at 
its close, in addition to the meal. Furthermore, it is generally the 
case that most of the articles served at dessert are wholly unfit to 


280 


ANATOMY , PHYSIOLOGY , J.2VD HYGIENE . 


be eaten at any time, and so should be discarded. Dessert is really 
an ingenious device to induce people to make dyspeptics of them¬ 
selves by eating more than they need. 

A man who desires to be at peace with his stomach should learn to 
“ stop when he has enough,” no matter how strongly he may be tempted 
to do otherwise. There is much more truth than poetry in the old 
Scandinavian proverb, “ Oxen know when to go home from grazing; 
but a fool never knows his stomach’s measure.” But experience, a dear 
school, ought after a time to teach the most unobserving person the 
amount of food his stomach will bear without discomfort, and without 
injury. If a person in fair health finds that after eating of whole¬ 
some food, he is troubled with fullness of the stomach, dullness over 
the eyes, “ sour-stomach,” eructations, or flatulence, he may be very 
sure that he is eating too much, and he should continue to diminish the 
amount taken at each meal until the symptoms mentioned disappear. 

By reference to the table given on page 370, it will be possible to 
ascertain with ease the amount of nutriment consumed in any given 
quantity of different varieties of food. It is worthy of remark that 
the grains, as shown in the table above mentioned, are by far the most 
nutritious of all the various classes of food. It will be observed, for 
instance, that oatmeal, Indian meal, and peas contain three times as 
much real nutriment as lean beef. When economy must be considered 
in the selection of food, this is a very important consideration. This 
becomes doubly evident when we consider that it takes eleven pounds 
of vegetable food, including Indian meal, dry hay, etc., to make one of 
beef. Thus it appears that as nutriment one pound of oatmeal at first¬ 
hand is as valuable as thirty or more pounds taken at second-hand, 
through the medium of beefsteak. 

Deficient Food Elements. —While the food may be abundant in 
gross quantity, it may be deficient in some one or more of the various 
important elements which go to make up the food. If the food is defi¬ 
cient in farinaceous and fatty elements, the individual will soon show 
signs of suffering in consequence. A lack of the nitrogenous elements 
will occasion still more marked effects, the stomach losing its tone and 
vigor, giving rise to acidity, flatulency, and various associated disturb¬ 
ances. The deficiency of the coarser r innutritious elements of the food, 
is also very soon felt by diminished activity of the stomach and bowels, 
both in secretion and in muscular action. Hence the great importance 
of choosing carefully and judiciously the articles of food to be taken, es- 


DEFICIENT FOOD ELEMENTS. 


281 


pecially when a regular dietary is to be followed. Such a selection 
should be made as will supply to the system all the elements of nutrition 
in proper quantity. To employ a dietary in which any one of the nu¬ 
tritive elements is deficient, although the quantity of the food may he 
all that the digestive organs can digest, is as really starvation, and will 
as certainly occasion the same results ultimately, as total deprivation of 
food. To attempt to live on white bread and butter and strong tea or 
coffee, is as certain to impoverish the blood as refraining from eating al¬ 
together, the only difference being in the length of time required to 
bring about the result. Thousands of pale-faced, anaemic, thin-blooded, 
nerveless, dyspeptic women owe all their troubles to an impoverished diet. 
Tea drunkenness, in which an individual attempts to subsist on the Chinese 
herb almost wholly, is a not uncommon thing ; and in consequence of 
its pernicious influence, the sagacious physician not infrequently finds 
as well marked cases of scurvy among ladies of the higher classes of so¬ 
ciety as among the poorly fed sailors of the whaling vessel after a long 
voyage with prolonged confinement to a monotonous saline diet. Young- 
ladies who attempt to exist with little other food than tea, pastry, and 
confectionery, need not wonder that they grow to be lank and sallow 
and hollow-eyed dyspeptics. Under such a regimen, the most hardy 
quadruped would succumb. 

Many parents weaken the digestive organs of their little ones for 
life by feeding them when very young upon such insufficient diet as 
corn-starch or arrowroot gruel, and similar preparations, and when they 
become older, upon fine-flour bread. Repeated experiment has shown 
that a dog will die of starvation in a month when fed upon white or 
fine-flour bread alone. Fed upon bread made of the whole grain, or 
graham bread, dogs as well as other animals suffer no deterioration in 
weight or in strength. The difference between fine flour and graham 
flour is largely in the proportion of gluten which they contain. Fine 
flour is made from the innermost portion of the grain, which is almost 
pure starch, thus excluding the brain, nerve, and muscle nourishing ele¬ 
ments which are found chiefly in the portions of the kernel that lie 
next the outer husk. Whole-wheat flour also contains portions of innu- 
tritious matter which, under most conditions, are advantageous, encour¬ 
aging both secretion and muscular activity of the bowels, and thus pre¬ 
venting constipation, which is often a forerunner of more serious disease 
of the digestive organs. There are cases in which the coarser portions 
of the bran are injurious by causing irritation; but these cases do not 
often occur. 


282 


ANATOMY , PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE . 


While it is necessary to have all of the elements of the food in 
proper proportion, it is of first importance that the nitrogenous ele¬ 
ments should be sufficient in quantity, even if it should be necessary to 
take an excess of the farinaceous elements to secure the proper amount, 
since it is of these elements that the vital portions of the body are 
formed. By reference to the table given on page 880 it may be ascer¬ 
tained what quantity must be taken of the different kinds of food in or¬ 
der to obtain a sufficient supply of nitrogenous elements. 

The Quality of Food .—Man, like other animals, is made of what 
he eats; hence the German proverb is literally true, that “as a man 
eateth, so is he,” and we may well credit the assertion of an eminent au¬ 
thor that the general tendency of thought in any nation may be deter¬ 
mined by the character of the national diet. True as this principle is 
when applied to the body in general, it is especially true as referring to 
the stomach. No organ is so directly and so profoundly affected by the 
quality of the food as the stomach. 

Bad Cookery. —The real object of cooking is to render the ele¬ 
ments of food more digestible. It is intended, indeed, to be a sort of 
partial preliminary digestion of the food; but the numerous devices 
of cooks and caterers,—complex compounds and indigestible mixtures, 
—have so far subverted the original design of the process as to render 
cooking a means of making food indigestible as often as otherwise. 
Altogether too little attention is paid to the subject of cookery as a 
science. In the majority of cases the task of preparing food for the 
palate—the stomach is seldom thought of—is intrusted to ignorant 
servant girls or colored cooks who compound mixtures by “ the rule of 
thumb,” and without any reference whatever to the physiological wants 
of the body. We are glad to see a slight indication of reform in this 
direction in the establishment of schools of cookery in the larger cities, 
and lectureships on the subject in some of our female seminaries. To 
become a good cook requires as much native genius and far more prac¬ 
tical experience than to become a musician or a school-teacher, or even 
to enter some of the learned professions. The position of cook ought 
to be made so respectable and lucrative that it will attract persons of 
sufficient mental capacity and culture to make the art subservient to 
the purposes for which it was first employed and designed. A poor 
cook in a family is a worse enemy to the health, the comfort, and even 
the morals of the household, than would be a swamp generating 
malaria a half-mile away, a cesspool fever-nest at the back door, 
small-pox across the street, or a Chinese Joss-house in the next block. 



INJURIOUS FOODS. 


283 


Fried Food.— Of all dietetic abominations for which had cookery 
is responsible, fried dishes are the most pernicious. Meats, fried, 
fricasseed, or otherwise cooked in fat, fried bread, fried vegetables, 
doughnuts, griddle-cakes, and all similar combinations of melted fat 
with other elements of food, are most difficult articles of digestion. 
None but the most stalwart stomach can master such indigestibles. 

O 

The gastric juice has little more action upon fats than water. Hence, 
a portion of meat or other food saturated with fat is as completely 
protected from the action of the gastric juice as is a foot within a 
well-oiled boot from the snow and water outside. It is marvelous 
indeed that any stomach, under any circumstances, can digest such 
food, and it is far from remarkable that many stomachs after a time 
rebel. 

It is principally for this same reason that “ rich ” cake, “ shortened ” 
pie-crust, and pastry generally, as well as warm bread and butter, so 
notoriously disagree with weak stomachs, and are the efficient cause 
in producing disease of the digestive organs. The digestion of the 
food being interfered with by its covering of fat, fermentation takes 
place. The changes occasioned in the fat develop in the stomach ex¬ 
tremely irritating and injurious acids, which irritate the mucous mem¬ 
brane of the stomach, causing congestion, and sometimes even inflam¬ 
mation. 

Uncooked Food. —Raw food, and food which is insufficiently 
cooked, is a frequent cause of indigestion. This is especially true of 
uncooked vegetables. Man is naturally a frugivorous animal, and is 
able to make use of vegetables and many grains as food only by the 
aid of cookery. The starch of vegetables is much more difficult of 
digestion than is that of fruits. All starch, in fact, is much easier of 
digestion if subjected to the action of heat before being eaten. By the 
action of heat, the starch granules, which consist of the starch proper 
inclosed in little capsules, are ruptured, and thus the digestive juices 
can readily come in contact with and digest the starch. When starchy 
substances are eaten raw, extra work is laid upon the organs of di¬ 
gestion, and indigestion follows. It is for this reason that raw fruit 
and green vegetables occasion so much disturbance of the stomach and 
bowels, these immature foods containing large quantities of starch in 
a very indigestible state. By cooking, unripe fruit and vegetables 
may be in a great degree deprived of their injurious properties. In 
Scotland, the eating of oatmeal imperfectly cooked is a very common 


284 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY , AND HYGIENE . 


practice, the result of which is an almost universal suffering from a 
peculiar form of indigestion due to it. Nearly all kinds of food are 
much more easy of digestion after cooking than before, providing the 
cooking is performed in the proper manner. For vegetables and 
grains, cooking is especially necessary. 

Decayed Food. —Much harm comes from eating food which has 
made appreciable advancement in the direction of decay. This is true 
of both vegetable and animal food. By the process of decomposition, 
poisonous elements are developed in animal and vegetable substances 
which do not naturally exist there. If decomposition is far advanced, 
these poisons may exist in such quantity as to produce immediate ill 
effects, sometimes occasioning death in a few hours. Instances of this 
sort have often occurred from eating canned meats which had spoiled, 
or which had been kept for a short time after opening. The practice 
in vogue in some countries, and to some extent in this, of keeping meat 
for some days before eating, so as to give it tenderness and a “high” 
flavor, is a most pernicious one. Better far, for health, is the horrible 
Abyssinian custom of eating the flesh while still warm and quivering. 

For persons with slow digestion, such food is especially bad, since di¬ 
gestion is so slow that decomposition is not corrected, as it is to some 
extent in a healthy stomach, by the gastric juice, but is allowed to con¬ 
tinue with all its serious consequences. If no immediate effects are seen 
to follow the use of such food, the poisons generated may be absorbed 
*. and appear in some later form analogous to blood poisoning. The stom¬ 
ach of a hyena may be able to digest the putrid flesh of a decaying 
carcass ; but man’s stomach was not intended for scavenger use, and re¬ 
quires fresh, untainted food. 

Soft Food. —The structure of man’s teeth indicates that he was in¬ 
tended to employ a diet consisting of food with sufficient consistency to 
require vigorous mastication. His jaws are armed with thirty-two 
strong teeth, compactly arranged in his mouth in such a manner as to 
make them-most available for use. Obeying the general law governing 
all organized structures, by which organs develop or degenerate accord¬ 
ing as they are used or allowed to remain inactive, the teeth retain their 
health if vigorously employed in the mastication of solid food, but rap¬ 
idly undergo decay when not thus used. This is well seen in cows which 
are fed on “ distillery slops.” The teeth of such animals decay and drop 
out for want of use, while those of cattle which keep their teeth actively 
employed in chewing the cud, are preserved intact. The same is true of 


EXCESSIVE USE OF SUGAR AND FATS.. 


285 


human beings. Eating soups, gruels, and other soft food, to the exclu¬ 
sion of articles requiring mastication, ruins the teeth at the same time 
that it disorders the stomach through the taking of too much fluid, and 
deficient insalivation. 

Too Abundant Use of Fats. —Unfortunately for the poor stom¬ 
ach, the opinion prevails almost everywhere that food made “ rich ” 
with fat is the most nourishing. Undoubtedly, fat is an element of 
nutrition, and can be digested and assimilated when taken in proper 
quantities and in a proper manner; but the excessive use of fats of 
various kinds—lard, suet, butter, and other animal and vegetable fats 
or oils—is a prolific cause of certain forms of indigestion, especially 
that known as bilious dyspepsia. Eminent physiologists determined 
by careful experiment many years ago the fact that the large use of 
fats greatly lessens the biliary secretion, the quantity of bile be¬ 
ing diminished in some instances to a very small fraction of the 
amount secreted when only pure water or food containing little fat 
was taken. When it is remembered that the bile is an essential ele¬ 
ment for the digestion of fat, it will be seen that a diminution of this 
digestive fluid, in connection with the taking of an extra quantity of 
oleaginous matter, is a most unfortunate circumstance, since it is thus 
absent when most needed. This fact sufficiently well accounts for the 
distressing symptoms which accompany the excessive use of fats by 
those whose digestion has been already weakened by abuse of this 
sort. The diminished quantity of bile eliminated by the liver is also 
sufficient cause for the condition established by the over-use of fats, 
vulgarly known by the expressive term, “ bilious.’’. The elements 
which ought to be eliminated from the system are retained, clogging 
the vital machinery, and giving rise to the many unpleasant symp¬ 
toms enumerated hereafter in describing “ bilious dyspepsia.” 

If fats are to be used at all, it is much preferable to employ them 
cold, as butter taken on bread at the table, rather than cooked in the 
food, by which the fat elements permeate and render difficult of di¬ 
gestion the whole mass of food. 

© 

The Use of Sugar in Excess. —While sugar, like fat, is a true 
alimentary principle, capable of aiding in the maintenance of life 
when employed with the other elements of food, used in excess it be¬ 
comes a serious source of disease. Employed alone, it is utterly inca¬ 
pable of supporting the vital activities of the body, being, in this re¬ 
spect, analogous to starch, its food equivalent. The popular idea that 


286 


ANATOMY , PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


sugar nourishes the nerves or the brain, makes the teeth sound, and 
is both harmless and wholesome, is quite a mistake, as many an inno¬ 
cent little one whose fond parents shared in the general error, has 
found out to the regret and sorrow of his friends. 

The different forms of sugar, molasses, sirup, treale, honey, etc., 
are essentially the same in their effects, except that molasses and 
honey sometimes contain peculiar elements which to some persons 
seem to be almost active poisons. This is especially true of honey. 

The injury from the use of sugar, or other saccharine substances, 
is occasioned, first, by the readiness with which it undergoes fermen¬ 
tation when subjected to warmth and moisture. In the stomach it 
finds all the conditions necessary for inducing fermentation; and were 
it not that saccharine substances in solution are usually so quickly ab¬ 
sorbed that it is difficult for the chemist even to detect their presence 
in the stomach, this change would always occur. When a larger 
quantity is taken than can be absorbed promptly, or when taken in 
such form as to make ready absorption impossible, as in the form of 
preserves and sweet-meats of various sorts, acid fermentation does oc¬ 
cur, and with serious results not only to the stomach, but to the 
whole system. The fermentation set up not only develops acids and 
gases from the sugar, but, being communicated to the other elements 
of the food,—the starch, and especially the fatty elements,—still worse 
forms of fermentation or decomposition occur, and the food is thus 
rendered unfit to nourish the body, while the mucous membrane of 
the stomach and intestines is irritated by the contact of unnatural, 
corroding elements in the food; and through their absorption, the 
whole system becomes affected. 

The excessive use of sugar also greatly overtaxes the liver, which 
has an important part to act in its digestion, distracting it from its 
legitimate function, and thus leaving the elements which it ought to 
eliminate, to accumulate in the system. Thus an individual may be¬ 
come “ bilious ” from the over-use of sugar as well as from excess in 
the use of fats. 

Condiments. —By condiments are meant all substances added to 
food for the mere purpose of rendering it more palatable, though pos¬ 
sessing no positive nutritive value in themselves. Mustard, vinegar, 
pepper, cinnamon, and various other spices, are included in this cat- 
egory, together with salt, although the last-named article is by some 
held to be of the nature of a food, supposing it to supply some want 
in the body. 


COXDIMEN TS. 


287 


Mustard, pepper, pepper-sauce, cinnamon, cloves, cardamoms, and 
similar substances, are of an irritating, stimulating character, and 
work a twofold injury upon the stomach. By contact, they irritate 
the mucous membrane, causing congestion and diminished secretion of 
gastric juice when taken in any but quite small quantities. This fact 
was demonstrated by the observations of Dr. Beaumont upon St. 
Martin. After several years’ careful study of the relations of various 
foods, drinks, etc., to the stomach, Dr. Beaumont stated in summing 
up his experiments that “stimulating condiments are injurious to the 
healthy stomach.” He often saw congestion produced in the mucous 
membrane of St. Martin’s stomach by eating food containing mustard, 
pepper, and similar condiments. 

When taken in quantities so small as to occasion no considerable 
irritation of the mucous membrane, condiments may still work injury 
by their stimulating effects, when long continued. The stomach, being 
at first excited to more than natural activity, afterward suffers from 
reaction, and is left in an inactive, diseased state, incapable of secret¬ 
ing sufficient gastric juice to supply the needs of the system in digest¬ 
ing food. This final result is often averted for some time by increas¬ 
ing the quantity of the artificial stimulus, in the form of pepper, mus¬ 
tard, salt, etc., but nature gives way at last, and chronic disease is the 
result. 

In the case of salt, there are several further objections to be urged, 
which are at least cogent against its excessive use; and by excessive 
use we mean a quantity which causes thirst either at or after meals, 
occasioned by the feverish state of the stomach induced by the caustic 
properties of the saline element. 

1. Salt is antiseptic. As already seen, anything which prevents 
fermentation will interfere with the action of the gastric juice. 
Hence salt, in any except very small quantities, must materially inter¬ 
fere with digestion. 

2. It is an irritant, not only to the stomach but to other parts of 
the system as well, as is indicated by the quickened pulse, thirst, and 
other symptoms of a febrile character experienced by a person after 
taking a slightly larger quantity than usual. 

3. Being a purely mineral substance, in no degree prepared, by as¬ 
sociation with organized life in plants, for assimilation as is necessary 
in the case of all mineral substances, it is exceedingly doubtful 
whether it is a food in the sense that fruit, vegetables, grains, or their 


288 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE . 


several nutritive elements, are foods, and whether it can be assimilated 
or made to take part in the vital processes of the body in any way, in 
larger quantities than it is found in food. 

4. Experimental evidence shows that human beings, as well as an¬ 
imals of all classes, live and thrive as well without salt as with it, 
other conditions being equally favorable. This statement is made 
with a full knowledge of counter arguments and experiments, and 
with abundant testimony to support the position taken. 

We may, in conclusion, remark that though we do not, except in 
rare instances, advise the entire discontinuance of the use of salt, on 
account of its having been so long employed as an ingredient of food, 
we believe that it may be greatly reduced in quantity by all who use 
it, without detriment, and with real benefit. The manner in which it 
is treated by the system, being retained in the blood instead of being 
deposited in the solid tissues to any extent, and washed out through 
the skin, mucous membrane, kidneys, and liver, and thus rapidly 
eliminated in proportion to the quantity taken, is at least a hint that 
a very large amount is not needed. 

Salted food is generally known to be very hard of digestion, and 
when it is taken for a long time, the stomach often fails. A piece of 
fresh fish which will digest well in one hour and a half, requires four 
hours after salting, according to Dr. Beaumont. 

Pickles, —Cucumbers, peaches, green tomatoes, and numerous 
other fruits and vegetables, are sometimes preserved by saturation 
with strong vinegar. Sometimes whisky or some other alcoholic 
liquor is added to increase the preservative property of vinegar. The 
same process which makes it impossible for a fruit or vegetable to 
ferment or decay, makes its digestion equally difficult, as already ex¬ 
plained. Pickles are exceedingly unwholesome as articles of food, and 
often cause acute dyspepsia in those who eat of them. Young ladies 
addicted to the free use of pickles may be assured that they must 
certainly part with their favorite dainty or bid farewell to good di¬ 
gestion. Cucumbers preserved with salt or vinegar are next to im¬ 
possible of digestion. The proverbial unhealthfulness of this vegetable 
is a popular notion based .on experience with the article prepared with 
vinegar and salt. Those chemical agents harden the delicate struct¬ 
ures of the vegetable, and render it almost unapproachable by the 
digestive juices. The pure vegetable, unsophisticated by condiments, 
is as harmless as other green vegetables. We would not hesitate to 
eat it freely thus, if need be, and in “ cholera times.” t 


TEA AND COFFEE. 


289 


1 incgar. —As the use of vinegar is continually increasing, atten¬ 
tion should he called to the fact that it may be a cause of disease. 
Ordinary vinegar contains about five per cent of acetic acid, its prin¬ 
cipal ingredient. Like alcoholic liquors, vinegar is a product of fer¬ 
mentation, being the result of carrying a little farther the same proc¬ 
ess by which alcohol is produced. Vinegar is much more irritating 
to the digestive organs than an alcoholic liquor of the same strength. 
It is extremely debilitating to the stomach when much used, though 
for the time being exciting. Vinegar is not infrequently employed 
in considerable quantities by young ladies who are anxious to look 
pale and interesting, and it never fails to produce the desired effect. 
It can be well recommended for such a purpose, since it so greatly 
impairs the digestion as to soon interfere seriously with nutrition. 
The moderate use of a light wine or of ale or beer is much less de¬ 
structive to the digestive organs than the large use of vinegar which 
is not uncommon among hearty eaters. There is really no need of 
resorting to so inferior a source for a mild acid, as we have the want 
met most perfectly in lemons, limes, citrons, and other acid fruits. 
As a dressing for some kinds of vegetable food, lemon juice is a per¬ 
fect substitute for vinegar. 

We have maintained this position respecting the use of vinegar for 
several years, notwithstanding it has been highly recommended by not 
a few eminent writers on food and dietetics. Very recently, however, 
M. Richet, at the head of an august body of French savants, comes for¬ 
ward maintaining that by careful experiment he has proved that these 
things are “ bad food for the stomach.” He does not hesitate to pro¬ 
nounce vinegar and tartaric acid prolific causes of dyspepsia, and 
highly condemns the use of vinegar and pickles by young ladies. It is 
no wonder that young ladies who indulge in these unwholesome articles 
of food grow “pale and interesting ” with dyspepsia. According to M. 
Richet, the use of acetic and tartaric acids causes a decrease in the secre¬ 
tion of gastric j uice, without which no digestion can take place. 

Tea and Coffee. —In classing these favorite beverages with causes 
of dyspepsia, we .shall certainly call forth a loud protest from the numer¬ 
ous devotees of “ the fragrant cupand among the number of those 
who argue for their use we shall find numerous learned professors, as 
well as nearly the whole sisterhood of the wives, maidens, mothers, and 
grandmothers of the nation, along with a good proportion of the hus¬ 
bands, fathers, brothers, and grandfathers as well. Nevertheless, it can 

19 


290 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


be easily shown that whatever action may be assigned to these bever¬ 
ages, it is unfavorable to digestion, rather than otherwise. Leaving out 
of consideration the objections which may be urged against the use of 
tea and coffee on other grounds, the following may be offered as reasons 
why they are objectionable on account of exerting an injurious influence 
upon the digestive organs:— 

1. Both tea and coffee contain an element resembling tannin, which 
precipitates or neutralizes the pepsin of the gastric juice, and so weakens 
its digestive power. 

2. Theine and caffeine, the active principles of tea and coffee, are 
toxic elements which at first increase and then diminish vital action, 
thus occasioning debility of the digestive organs from long-continued 
use. 

3. Both tea and coffee are objectionable on the same ground as other 
beverages in connection with meals, on account of disturbing the di¬ 
gestion by dilution and consequent weakening of the gastric juice, and 
overtaxing the absorbents, delaying the digestion of the food and thus 
giving: rise to fermentation. When taken hot, as is the usual custom, 
these beverages, as do others, at first stimulate but ultimately relax and 
debilitate the stomach. 

The objections mentioned as applying to tea and'coffee may be urged 
with equal force against cocoa and chocolate, the effects of which differ 
from the effects of tea and coffee chiefly in degree. 

For the other injurious effects of tea and coffee, see chapter on “Stim¬ 
ulants and Narcotics.” 

Alcoliol. —We have not space in this connection to dwell at 
length upon the damaging effects of alcohol upon the human system, 
nor in full detail of its effects upon the stomach. The following facts, 
however, are well worth the consideration of those who believe in the 
use of alcohol either moderately or with greater freedom :— 

1. Alcohol itself is an active poison, which when received into the 
stomach in a concentrated state is almost as quickly fatal to life as is 
prussic acid or strychnia. It precipitates the pepsin of the gastric j uice, 
rendering it inert. 

2. It irritates the gastric mucous membrane when taken in any but 
extremely small quantities, even beer and the weaker liquors having 
this effect when long continued. 

3. The ultimate effect of alcohol is to cause degeneration of the se¬ 
creting glands of the stomach, by which its utility as a digestive organ 
is destroyed. 


TOBACCO. 


291 


Dr. Beaumonts observations on the effects of alcohol are very posi¬ 
tive and distinct in their indications. St. Martin being an intemperate 
man, occasionally indulging freely in drink, Dr. Beaumont had an op¬ 
portunity of observing the effects of its use, as he was able to look di¬ 
rectly into his stomach by the aid of a strong light, through the window 
provided by the remarkable accident from which he had suffered. After 
he had been drinking freely for several days, Dr. Beaumont found the 
mucous membrane exhibiting inflamed and ulcerous patches, and the se¬ 
cretions very greatly vitiated, the gastric juice being diminished in 
quantity, viscid and unhealthy, although St. Martin did not complain 
of any unusual feelings, his appetite being apparently unimpaired. The 
condition became still more aggravated for two days, when the Doctor 
found that “ the inner membrane of the stomach was exceedingly mor¬ 
bid, the erythematic appearance more extensive, and the spots still 
more livid. From the surface of some of them exuded small drops of 
grumous blood ; the aphthous patches were large and very numerous,— 
the mucous covering thicker than common, and the gastric secretions 
very greatly vitiated. The gastric fluids extracted were mixed with a 
large proportion of thick, ropy mucus, and a considerable muco-purulent 
discharge slightly tinged with blood, resembling the discharge from the 
bowels in some cases of dysentery ” 

It will be remarked that notwithstanding the very serious condition 
of his stomach, St. Martin was unconscious of any great disturbance 
there. This was partly due, no doubt, to the paralyzing effect of alco¬ 
hol upon the nerves of sensibility. It is owing to this fact that so many 
suppose that alcoholic drinks have no specially bad influence upon the 
stomach, when really their stomachs are well-nigh useless from disease 
but too insensible to indicate their condition. 

Liquor of any sort taken upon an empty stomach is especially 
injurious. 

Tobacco. —Not infrequently, though less often than is the case with 
alcoholic liquors, this narcotic drug is recommended as a remedy for dys¬ 
pepsia. Nevertheless, in the case of tobacco as in that of alcohol, the rem¬ 
edy suggested is itself an active cause of stomach disease. Only on the 
similia similibus plan could either one be reasonably employed. Both 
smoking and chewing weaken and debilitate the digestive organs, though, 
both of these practices are thought by those who indulge them to stimu¬ 
late the process of digestion, which they probably do for the time being 
but only at the expense of subsequent injury. Snuff-taking, especially, 


292 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


produces gastric irritability, probably by reflex sympathy of the mu¬ 
cous membrane of the stomach with that of the nasal cavity, which is 
irritated by the direct contact of the acrid drug. 

The immense waste of saliva occasioned by chewing and smoking 
may fairly be considered as one of the means by which the system sus¬ 
tains loss and injury through the use of tobacco. Those who chew or 
smoke to prevent excess of fat, should understand that any drug which 
will exert such an influence upon the system must be a powerfully de¬ 
structive agent. Those who succeed in keeping down fat by the use of 
tobacco may depend upon it that they are doing so only at the ruinous 
expense of their digestive organs, and may look forward with certainty 
to the breaking down of their nervous systems. 

Hard Water. —So little attention has been paid to this really 
common cause of indigestion by writers on this subject, that we can¬ 
not forbear mentioning it here. Experience has often proved that 
the use of hard water impairs the integrity of the stomach sooner or 
later when long continued; and in numerous instances its effects are 
almost immediate upon persons who visit a hard-water district, 
having been accustomed to the use of soft water. These injuri¬ 
ous effects are undoubtedly attributable to the lime and magnesia 
which are contained in water called hard. These alkalies, as already 
seen in considering the physiology of digestion, neutralize the gastric 
juice, and thus work their mischief. There is little necessity for the 
use of hard water in any part of the country. Where there are not 
soft-water wells or springs, rain-water may be caught and preserved 
in cisterns, and by filtration through carbon filters it can be made 
pure and palatable for drinking and cooking purposes. There is no 
foundation for the theory that hard water is in any respect more 
excellent for use than pure soft water. 

Alkalies. —Soda, saleratus, and the numerous compounds of 
these substances with ammonia, alum, cream of tartar, etc., are all 
objectionable on the same grounds as hard water. Being alkaline, 
they antagonize the action of the acid gastric juice, and thus 
weaken digestion. There is no more active dyspepsia-producing 
agent than soda and saleratus biscuit, one of the most common 
articles of food to be found on the tea-table of rich and poor in this 
country. Doubtless, well-prepared baking-powders are much pref¬ 
erable to soda and cream of tartar or saleratus and sour milk, mixed 
by the cook in accordance with the not remarkably accurate “ rule 


PERVERTED APPETITES. 


293 


of thumb,'’ through which bungling chemistry the biscuit often pre¬ 
sent a golden hue which may be attractive to the eye, but gives to 
the tongue quite too distinct a flavor of soda and potash to be 
agreeable to a fastidious taste, to say nothing of the probable effect 
upon a stomach not impregnable against the attacks of chemical 
agents. In baking-powders, the various ingredients are so mixed as 
to leave nearly neutral products, and yet these compounds are 
scarcely less pernicious in their influence upon digestion than the 
original chemicals from which they are formed. We deem the wide¬ 
spread and growing use of these chemical bread-making agents bad 
omens for the digestion of the next generation; though we read¬ 
ily grant that if the alternative is between heavy bread and bread 
made “ light ” with baking-powder, the latter is preferable. 

Perverted Appetites. —Strangely perverted tastes, as shown in a 
fondness for earthy and other inorganic or innutritions substances, 
while sometimes the result of dyspepsia, are often the cause of stom¬ 
ach disorders, being the result of nervous or mental disease, or being 
adopted as a habit through example. In South America there are 
whole tribes of human beings who habitually eat considerable quanti¬ 
ties of a peculiar kind of clay. Several North American tribes have 
the same habit, being known as clay-eaters. A similar propensity 
sometimes appears among more civilized human beings, being almost 
exclusively confined, however, to young women, chiefly school-girls, 
who acquire the habit of chewing up slate pencils, and gradually be¬ 
come so fond of such earthy substances that they have in some in¬ 
stances been known to eat very considerable quantities of chalk, clay, 
and similar substances. While indicating a depraved state of the 
system, and often of the mind also, this practice has a very pernicious 
effect upon the stomach, which is not intended, as is that of the fowl, 
to receive inorganic matter of that sort. 

The amount of abuse of this sort which the stomach will stand, 
however, is quite astonishing. Dr. Pavy tells a story of an American 
sailor who saw a juggler pretending to swallow pocket-knives. With 
the characteristic recklessness of a sailor, and supposing that the 
knives were really swallowed, he attempted to do the same thing 
himself, and succeeded in getting down four. Three of these were 
passed off in two days, but he never saw the other. Six years after, 
he swallowed fourteen knives in two days, and was taken to a hos¬ 
pital, where “ he got safely delivered of his cargo.” He was not so 


294 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY , AND HYGIENE. 


fortunate on a subsequent occasion, when he paid dearly for his folly, 
lingering in misery for some time until he died, when his stomach 
was found to contain a number of rusty knife-handles, blades, springs, 
etc., being greatly contracted and corrugated in consequence of the 
violence which had been done to it. 

The habit of swallowing cherry pits, apple and other small seeds, 
is a very reprehensible one. Such objects not only disturb the stom¬ 
ach, but sometimes find lodgment in the appendix at the lower end 
of the coecum, giving rise to inflammation and death. As a general 
rule, the innutritious parts of foods, as the skins of fruits and vegeta¬ 
bles, the seeds and cores of apples, and similar parts, should be care¬ 
fully separated from the nutrient portions and discarded. 

Adulterations of Food.—The numerous adulterations of food 
which are now so extensively practiced must be recognized as a not 
unimportant cause of functional disease of the stomach. Alum in 
bread and in baking-powders; lead in drinking-water which has 
passed through lead water-pipes, or has been stored in lead cisterns, 
or collected from a roof covered with sheet-tin containing lead; lead 
occurring in the tin cans used for preserving fruit, or in tin pans or 
other tinned ware, or in the glazing of kettles; vinegar containing 
sulphuric and other strong mineral acids; pickles boiled in copper or 
brass vessels and thus poisoned with copper; sugar adulterated with 
glucose—or sugar made from corn, refuse starch, etc.—and containing 
iron, sulphuric acid, tin, etc.; flavoring extracts made by purely chem¬ 
ical processes, and containing not a drop of the extract of the fruit 
after which they are named; chalk and water in milk,—these, with 
numerous other equally harmful adulterations, work havoc with the 
stomachs of people who are so unfortunate as to be victimized. 

Unseasonable Diet.—The failure to recognize the necessity of 
adapting the diet to the season and climate is a prolific source of a 
certain class of dyspeptic disorders. This is especially noticeable 
when the use of large quantities of carbonaceous food, especially fats 
and sugar, which may be used in the winter with comparative im¬ 
punity, is continued into the warm season of the year, or when a diet 
of this sort is continued in a warm climate by persons who have been 
accustomed to it in a cold country. It is this sort of transgression of 
the laws of digestion that gives rise to “ biliousness,” “ bilious dys¬ 
pepsia,” etc., in many persons. Large quantities of fat and sugar are 
not well tolerated by the stomach at any time; and in warm climates, 


NEGLECT OF THE BOWELS. 


295 


and the warm season of cold and temperate latitudes, they are ex¬ 
ceedingly injurious. 

Pressure upon the Stomach. —The stomach is remarkably sen¬ 
sitive to pressure. It even sometimes becomes temporarily paralyzed 
by excess in eating, or by the accumulation of gas from fermentation, 
by the distension of its walls. It is equally liable to injury of a sim¬ 
ilar sort from external causes. A sudden blow upon the stomach has 
been known to produce almost instant death. In ladies, the wearing 
of corsets, and tight-lacing with or without the corset, are common 
causes of dyspepsia as well as of other serious diseases. Wearing of 
the pantaloons drawn tightly, and without suspenders, has a similar 
effect in men. The soldiers of the Russian army once suffered so much 
from this cause that it became necessary to correct the evil by a royal 
edict for the purpose. Very soon after the evil practice was discon¬ 
tinued, the effects disappeared. Book-keepers and school children 
from sitting at a desk, seamstresses and tailors from stooping over at 
their work, shoe-makers, weavers, and washer-women, from direct 
pressure upon the stomach incidental to their work, suffer from dis¬ 
turbance of that organ. 

Drugs. —The continued use of drugs of several sorts, and espe¬ 
cially of patent medicines, “ bitters/’ and “ purgatives,” particularly 
the latter, has a very damaging effect upon the stomach and bowels. 
Too much cannot be said to discourage the use of laxatives, purgatives, 
“ liver pills,” etc. While sometimes beneficial, agents of this sort, if 
used for any length of time, are quite certain to work mischief. Pur¬ 
gatives should never be used except as temporary palliatives. If the 
bowels require artificial aid, the enema is far preferable; and yet this 
plan also has its inconveniences, and results badly if too long contin¬ 
ued. In general, the less drugs one takes the better. Patent nos¬ 
trums should be shunned as the most virulent poisons, which in many 
instances they are. 

Neglect of the Bowels. —Neglecting to heed the calls of nature 
promptly and regularly is an abuse of the digestive organs which 
should not be overlooked. The bowels are as much a part of the ali¬ 
mentary canal as is the stomach; and they have an important part to 
act in absorbing the digested food. They are also important excreting 
organs, some of the worst poisons generated in the system passing off 
through them. The feces are made up, not chiefly of the remains of 
food, as many persons suppose, but of impurities thrown out of the 


296 


ANATOMY , PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


system by the intestinal mucous membrane. When these excrementi- 
tious substances, the foulest in the body, are retained, they are to some 
extent reabsorbed, thus poisoning the system. Every physician is 
familiar with the peculiar fecal odor of the breath of a costive child, 
an evidence of the absorption referred to. 

The bowels naturally move once a day with most people, and com¬ 
monly soon after breakfast. A few persons habitually move their 
bowels only every other day, without injury, while some persons find 
it necessary to relieve the bowels twice in twenty-four hours. How¬ 
ever the habit may be, it should be regular. Every person should 
have a definite time for attending to the relief of the bowels as system¬ 
atically and punctually as in taking meals. This is a matter of very 
great importance; piles, or hemorrhoids, fissure and fistula, prolapsus 
of rectum and also of the womb, and a host of other evils, begin in 
constipation of the bowels. 

To encourage the needed regularity and promptness in attending 
to the bowels, it is important that comfortable accommodations for the 
purpose should be provided. The custom of building a small, loose 
shed at a considerable distance from the house is a bad one, as it sub¬ 
jects women and children, especially, to unpleasant and even danger¬ 
ous exposure during the cold months of the year. Still more to be 
deprecated is the custom, quite prevalent in the West, of dispensing 
with privy accommodations altogether. The closet should be near 
the house, and should be made warm and convenient, and properly 
screened. If judiciously taken care of, it need not be a nuisance or a 
cause of disease, even if adjoining the house or within it. The earth- 
closet plan is an excellent arrangement for winter. 

A very eminent medical gentleman, a man of long experience as a 
sj>ecialist in the treatment of diseases of women, affirms his belief that 
not a few of the serious maladies from which women suffer are due to 
neglect of the bowels. 

The best remedies for constipation are given under the proper 
head. 

Mental Influence. —The digestive process is very greatly under 
control of the mind. The connection between the mind and the 
stomach is so intimate that Van Helmont maintained for a loner time 

O 

that the stomach was the seat of the soul. By any strong emotion 
the whole digestive apparatus may suddenly cease to act. Fear, rage, 
and grief check the salivary secretion, and without doubt the gastric 


HYGIENE OF THE TEETH. 297 

also. Through the mind, the appetite may be either encouraged or 
quite destroyed. 

A man who sits down to his dinner with his mind depressed with 
business cares, the embarrassment of debts, or the anxiety of doubtful 
speculations, cannot hope to digest the most carefully selected meal. 
The woman who dines with her mind disturbed with discontent, fret- 
fulness, and worriment, is certain to suffer with indigestion. Domestic 
infelicity may well be counted as at least an occasional cause of di¬ 
gestive derangements. Meals eaten in moody silence are much more 
apt to disagree with the stomach than those which are accompanied 
by cheerful conversation. A hearty laugh is the very best sort of 
condiment. Cheerfulness during and after meals cannot be too highly 
rated as an antidote for indigestion. 

Hy giene of the Teeth. —Defective teeth, by interfering with the 
complete and thorough mastication of food, seriously impair the di¬ 
gestion. On the other hand, impairment of digestion, and perversion 
of the secretions, is a very common cause of decay of the teeth. Thor¬ 
ough mastication is essential to good digestion; and no one can hope 
to preserve a good digestion while munching food with toothless gums, 
or subsisting on a dietary that requires no use of teeth. 

So rapid is the increase of degeneration of the teeth in modern 
times, that we have asked ourselves more than once the question, Will 
the American race become toothless ? Not quite, perhaps; at least not 
so long as artificial dentures can be manufactured from such a variety 
of substances and made to answer so useful a purpose as masticators. 
Indeed, some people already afford two sets of teeth—a set for every 
day, for rough usage, and an extra-fine set for exhibition on special 
occasions. But at the present rate of deterioration, not many more 
generations will appear before we shall find a toothless race, ship¬ 
wrecked in health, with digestion bankrupt, and “ nerves ” the dom¬ 
inant feature. 

Barely indeed, do we find a person at thirty years of age with a 
set of sound teeth. Far more often do we find young lads and girls 
of ten to sixteen years of age whoso teeth are mere shells of decaying 
tissue, rotting away with almost visible rapidity, depositories of de¬ 
caying particles of food, and millions of wriggling animalcules, and 
the sources of contaminating elements which deteriorate digestion, 
and of offensive odors which contaminate the breath. In confirmation 
of these statements respecting the condition of American masticators 


2i)S 


ANATOMY , PHYSIOLOGY , JLVD HYGIENE . 


it may be mentioned that there are 12,000 dentists in the United 
States, who annually extract twenty million teeth, manufacture and 
insert three million artificial teeth, and hide away in the cavities of 
carious teeth three tons of pure gold, to say nothing about the tons of 
mercury, tin, and other metals employed in “ fillings.” 

For the preservation of the teeth we offer the following rules, 
which, if thoroughly carried out, will certainly secure good results un¬ 
less the teeth are ruined by incurable constitutional disease:— 

1. See that the teeth are proj)erly developed. To this end, supply 
the child while an infant, and even after, with an abundance of food 
which is rich in “salts,” such as peas, beans, graham bread, oatmeal, 
and the like, and carefully watch the first set of teeth as they are 
developed and give place to the permanent set. 

2. Have a tooth filled as soon as the smallest appearance of decay is 
discovered; and in order to discover the very beginnings of decay, ex¬ 
amine them frequently, or have a dentist do so. If a child complains 
of toothache, take him to a good dentist at once, for something is cer¬ 
tainly wrong. It is a mistake to suppose that it is not worth while to 
have first teeth filled, since others will come in their place. Unless the 
tooth is about to be displaced by the permanent tooth, it should be filled, 
for the benefit of the coming permanent tooth as well as for the present 
health and comfort of the child. 

3. Cleanse the teeth night and morning, as well as after each 
meal, taking care to remove all particles of food, brushing and rinsing 
well. Use soap and powder at least once a day. Give attention to the 
back teeth, and the inside as well as the front teeth, which are apt to re¬ 
ceive chief attention for the sake of appearance, when they need the least. 

4. Never allow mineral acids of any kind, nor such preparations as 
chloride or sulphate of iron, to touch the teeth, as they will destroy the 
enamel. 

5. Avoid allowing gritty substances to come in contact with the 
enamel, as they will scratch and mar it, and perhaps cause the beginning 
of decay. 

6. If possible, never lose a tooth. An eminent physician once said 
that we lose a year of life every time we part with a tooth. They are 
too valuable to lose when by a trifling expense they may be saved. 

7. Never employ traveling dentists nor purchase or use patent com¬ 
pounds for the teeth. Many of them contain substances which will de¬ 
stroy the enamel or induce disease of the gums. 


CARE OF TEE TEETH . 


290 


8. Never carry “old stumps ” in the mouth. If they cannot be filled, 
have them extracted. Nothing is much more repulsive than a mouth 
full of stumps of rotten teeth. We would much rather encounter the 
decomposing carcass of a dead dog than a person with such a mouth; 
for we could easily run away from the former, but might be compelled 
to tolerate the presence of the latter notwithstanding the nuisance. 

9. If the teeth are utterly in ruins and can in no way be repaired 
so as to make them really serviceable, they should be replaced by 
good artificial teeth. It should be borne in mind, however, that 
the natural teeth are much superior to any artificial substitute; 
and hence they should not be sacrificed without making all possible 
efforts to save them. Many times dentists advise the drawing of 
teeth for the purpose of securing the opportunity to make a new set; 
hence it is important that advice should be sought from a skillful and 
trustworthy source. 

10. Artificial teeth must be cared for wffth as much scrupulous 
regularity and thoroughness as natural teeth in order to preserve the 
health of the mouth. They should be removed from the mouth at 
night and placed in a glass of water, and in the morning should be 
thoroughly cleansed with fine soap or with a solution of chlorinated 
soda, which can be obtained of any druggist. Artificial dentures 
should also be removed from the mouth and thoroughly cleansed 
after each meal. 


300 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


SECRETION AND EXCRETION. 


The nutrition or maintenance of the body in health, involves two 
essential processes, assimilation and disintegration, or dis-assimila- 
tion. Assimilation is the process by which the nutritive material fur¬ 
nished to the tissues in the blood is made into tissue, each tissue possessing 
the power to renew itself from the elements found in the blood. Dis- 
assimilation is the process of tissue waste or breaking down. Every 
act, thought, sensation, no matter how slight, results in the waste or 
breaking down of tissue. As accessory to these two great processes, we 
have secretion and excretion. Secretion is the formation from the 
blood of something which did not exist in it, but which is produced by 
transformation of some of the elements which it contains, for the pur¬ 
pose of aiding in some vital process. Assimilation is really a secretory 
process, each tissue possessing the power to secrete tissue like itself. 
Excretion is the removing from the blood of the products of tissue 
waste which are washed out of the tissues by the venous blood. 

Secretions. —The principal secretions are the following : 1. The 
digestive fluids, comprising the saliva, gastric juice, bile, 'pancreatic 
juice, and the intestinal juices, all of which have been described ; 2. 
Serous fluids, produced by serous membranes for the purpose of lubri¬ 
cation ; as by the peritoneum, which lines the abdominal cavity and 
covers the intestines; the pericardium, which incloses the heart; the 
pleura, which covers the lungs and lines the chest; the membranes of the 
brain, etc.; 3. Synovial fluid, which is formed by the synovial mem¬ 

branes of joints for the purpose of lubrication; 4. Sebaceous matter, 
which is formed by minute glands in the skin and some parts of the 
mucous membrane for the purpose of protecting the skin, and keeping 
it in a supple condition ; 5. Various other fluids formed by small glands 
which are imperfectly understood, as the pineal gland and pituitary body 
of the brain. 

Excretions. —The principal excretory products are the sweat, mu¬ 
cus, urins, bile, and carbonic acid, eliminated respectively by the skin, 
the mucous membrane, the kidneys, the liver, and the lungs. The ex¬ 
cretions are not produced by the organs named, but by the tissues, the 



THE SKIN—SWEAT-GLANDS. 


301 


organs mentioned simply serving to separate the various morbid ele¬ 
ments from the blood. 

Without going into the minute details of the subject, we will now 
consider the structure and functions of the principal secreting and ex¬ 
creting organs which have not been already described. 

The Skill. —The general structure of the skin has been described 
in connection with the consideration of the sense of touch (see page 166), 
and hence we need consider here only the points there omitted; viz., the 
secreting and excreting organs of the skin, and the hair and nails. A 
reference to Plate IV will give quite a clear idea of the relations of the 
sweat glands, the hair, and the sebaceous glands, to the general frame¬ 
work of the skin. The area of the skin in an adult is twelve to sixteen 
square feet. 

The Sweat Glands .—A close examination of the little ridges found 
upon the palms of the hands, by the aid of a small magnifying-glass, 
will reveal what appear to be fine transverse lines crossing the ridges at 
short intervals. A closer inspection shows that the apparent lines are 
really extremely minute openings, guarded by delicate valves. These 
are the mouths of the perspiratory ducts, which convey to the sur¬ 
face the product of the sweat glands. The gland itself is merely a 
coiled tube, situated deep down in the true skin, and surrounded with a 
net-work of blood-vessels. The duct is simply a continuation of the 
same tube upward through the cuticle to the surface. It passes out 
upon the surface of the skin obliquely, thus leaving a small portion of 
the cuticle overlapping its orifice, forming a sort of valve. 

The number of these delicate glands is enormous. It has been care¬ 
fully estimated to be about 2,300,000 in a single individual. The length 
of each is about one-fifteenth of an inch, making their aggregate length 
about two and one-half miles. 

Between two and three pounds of sweat is thrown off each day. 
The perspiratory secretion consists of water holding in solution various 
excretory principles, the chief of which is urea, which is also elimi¬ 
nated by the kidneys, and is one of the most important excretory 
products. The amount of urea varies somewhat with the amount elim¬ 
inated by the kidneys. The sweat also contains a large proportion of 
chloride of sodium. In certain parts of the body, particularly the arm- 
pits and between the toes, the sweat glands are more numerous than in 
most other parts, and the perspiration often has a peculiar and offensive 


302 


ANATOMY , PHYSIOLOGY , ^LYD HYGIENE . 


odor. The sweat secretion is usually acid ; but when so strongly odor¬ 
ous it is found to be alkaline. 

The Hair. —With the exception of the palms of the hands and the 
soles of the feet, the whole surface of the body is covered with hairs, 
which vary much in length and thickness in different parts of the body. 
The majority are soft and fine, those upon the head and a few other 
parts of the body being long and silky. The hairs found upon the head 
average about yjy of an inch in diameter, varying from to of 
an inch. Dark hair is usually coarser than light. The color of the 
hair is due to pigment of the same nature as that which gives color to 

the eye and skin. The number of hairs 
upon the entire head is about 120,000. 
Straight hairs are nearly round. That 
which is curled is elliptical. The hair 
of the negro is flat. Hair possesses the 
peculiar property of becoming strongly 
electric when rubbed. This is especially 
manifested in cold, dry weather. When 
combed in the dark, sparks may be seen 
to issue from it. This may be well seen 
in rubbing the back of a cat, stroking to¬ 
ward the head. 

Most hairs are hollow, beintr really 
hollow tubes, the outside being covered 
with a layer of overlapping cells. When 
viewed with a microscope, the hair looks 
rough and serrated. This peculiarity can 
be demonstrated by a simple experiment. 
Place two hairs between the thumb and 
finger with the roots the same way. Mow make a slight side 
movement with the thumb and finger, thus rubbing the hairs alter¬ 
nately in different directions. Two smooth wires so treated would re¬ 
main in the position in which they were placed; but the hairs will be 
seen to move with each alternate movement of the fingers, and always 
toward the root. Now if one hair be changed so that its root is in the 
same direction as the tip of the other, the same rubbing will cause them 
to move in opposite directions. 

The hairs grow from little pouches in the skin. The root of a hair 
greatly magnified is shown in Fig. 130. The hair serves a useful purpose in 



Fig 1 . 130. The Root of a Hair, 
showing nutrient blood-vessels at the 
base. 

































FUNCTIONS OF THE SKIN. 


303 


protecting the body, giving additional warmth in some places, and in 
hot climates protecting the head from the heat of the sun, being a good 
non-conductor. It also diminishes the friction of clothing. The mus¬ 
tache protects the lungs from dust. 

Connected with each hair follicle is a little band of involuntary 
muscular fibres, one end of which is attached to the follicle, the other to 
the skin near by. Under the influence of cold these muscles contract, 
puckering the skin and producing the peculiar appearance known as 
goose-flesh. 

Sudden Blanching of tlie Hair. —Cases have occurred, in which, 
under the influence of fear, grief, or some other strong emotion, the hair 
has turned white in a single night, a week, or some other short period. 
Examination of hair thus affected has shown that the cause of the 
change of color is the appearance in the hair of great numbers of minute 
air-bubbles. 

The Sebaceous Glands. — Connected with the hair follicles are lit¬ 
tle glands for the secretion of a fatty substance. These glands discharge 
their contents into the hair follicles, whence they reach the skin. 

The Nails. —These are horny plates which grow from a fold of 
skin near the ends of the fingers and toes. They are formed in a man¬ 
ner much similar to that in which the hairs are produced. Their object 
is to protect the ends of the fingers and toes. 

Functions of the Skin. —The skin performs a number of very 
important offices for the body. Perhaps the most important is that 
of excretion. Each of its millions of sweat glands is actively and con¬ 
stantly engaged in separating from the blood impurities which would 
destroy life if retained. These foul products are poured out through 
a corresponding number of minute sewers, and deposited upon the 
surface of the body to the amount of several ounces each day, or sev¬ 
eral pounds, if the whole perspiration be included in the estimate, as 
is commonly done. 

The skin is also an organ of respiration; it absorbs oxygen, and 
exhales carbonic acid gas, with other poisonous gases. The amount of 
respiratory labor performed by the skin is about one-sixtieth of that 
done by the lungs. In some of the lower animals, the wdiole work of 
respiration is performed by the skin. In the common frog, the respi¬ 
ratory action of the skin and of the lungs is about equal. 

Another important office of the cutaneous tissue is absorption. 



304 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


The absorption of oxygen has already been referred to; but it ab¬ 
sorbs liquids as well as gases, and to a much greater extent. By im¬ 
mersion in a warm bath for some time, the weight of the body may 
be very considerably increased. Dr. Watson, an English physician of 
note, reports the case of a boy whose weight increased nine pounds in 
twenty-four hours, solely by cutaneous absorption of moisture from the 
air. This extraordinary action was occasioned by disease. Seamen, 
when deprived of fresh water, quench their thirst by wetting their 
clothing with sea-water, the aqueous portion of which is absorbed by 
the skin. The lymphatic vessels are believed to be the principal 
agents in absorption. 

Another remarkable function of the skin is the regulation of tem¬ 
perature. By its density and non-conducting property it prevents the 
escape of necessary heat to a considerable degree. But when the 
amount of heat generated in the body becomes excessive, either from 
abnormal vital activities, or by exposure to external heat, the skin re¬ 
lieves the suffering tissues by favoring the escape of heat. This de¬ 
sirable end is attained through the evaporation of the moisture poured 
out upon the surface by the perspiratory glands. 

It has been estimated that the evaporation of water from the cu¬ 
taneous surface and from the mucous membrane of the lungs occasions 
the loss each minute of sufficient heat to raise a pint of water 100° F. in 
temperature. This is certainly a powerful cooling process. 

Lastly, we mention as a further function of the skin, and one 
which is not the least in importance, its utility as a sensitive surface. 
It is a well-established physiological fact that the mind is only a re¬ 
flection of impressions received from without, or at least that its char¬ 
acter is largely determined by the nature of the impressions made 
upon its organs of sensibility. The skin is the organ of touch, and of 
the various modifications of tactile sensibility. It is the most exten¬ 
sive organ of sensibility.in the body, and is very closely connected 
with all the great nerve centers, so that it is perhaps the most effi¬ 
cient means through which to affect the general nervous system. Its 
intimate sympathy with internal organs is shown in the great number 
of diseases in which this organ evidently suffers on account of disabil¬ 
ity of some internal part. 

The importance of the functions of the skin is shown by the fact 
that a person quickly dies when its action is interrupted. A coat of 
varnish or caoutchouc, applied over the whole skin, will kill a man al- 


CLEANLINESS. 


305 


most as quick as a fatal dose of strychnia. In illustrative experi¬ 
ments, horses, dogs, and other animals have been killed by obstructing 
the action of the skin by some similar means. A little boy was once 
killed by covering him with gold-leaf to make him represent an angel 
at a great celebration. 

The offensive odor of the perspiration, and the characteristic smell 
of the sweat-soiled under-clothing of a tobacco-user, are facts which 
well attest the value of the cutaneous functions in removing impuri¬ 
ties from the body. 

Cleanliness. —The skin is one of the most important depurating 
organs of the whole body. From each of its millions of pores con¬ 
stantly flows a stream laden with the poisonous products of disinte¬ 
gration. As the water evaporates, it leaves behind these non-volatile 
poisons, which are deposited as a thin film over the whole surface of 
the skin. As each day passes, the process continues, and the film 
thickens. If the skin is moderately active, three or four days suffice 
to form a layer which may be compared to a thin coating of varnish 
or sizing. The accumulation continues to increase, unless removed, 
and soon undergoes further processes of decomposition. It putrefies, 
rots, in fact, and develops an odor characteristic and quite too famil¬ 
iar, though anything but pleasant, being at once foul, fetid, putrid, 
pungent, uncleanly, and unpardonable. 

But the offense to the nose is not the extent of the evil. The un¬ 
clean accumulation chokes the mouths of the million little sewers 
which should be engaged in eliminating these poisons, and thus ob¬ 
structs their work. Being retained in contact with the skin, some 
portions are reabsorbed, together with the results of advancing decay, 
thus repoisoning the system, and necessitating their elimination a sec¬ 
ond time. 

Here water serves a most useful end if properly applied. It is un¬ 
excelled as a detergent, and by frequent application to the skin will 
keep it wholly free from the foul matters described. The necessity 
for frequent ablutions is well shown by the fact that nearly two 
pounds of a poison-laden solution, the perspiration, is daily spread 
upon the surface of the body. It is not an uncommon occurrence to 
meet with people who have never taken a general bath in their lives. 
Imagine, if possible, the condition of a mans skin, at the age of sev¬ 
enty or eighty years, which has never once felt the cleansing effects of 
a thorough bath 1 


20 


306 


ANATOMY , PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 


One of the most serious effects of this accumulation of filth is the 
clogging of the perspiratory ducts. Their valve-like orifices become 
obstructed very easily, and depuration is then impossible. It is not 
wonderful that so many people have torpid skins. The remedy is ob¬ 
vious, and always available. 

How to Make tlie Skin Healthy. —A man who has a perfectly 
healthy skin is nearly certain to be healthy in other respects. In no 
way can the health of the skin be preserved but by frequent bathing. 
A daily or tri-weekly bath, accompanied by friction, will keep the 
skin clean, supple, and vigorous. There is no reason why the whole 
surface of the body should not be washed as well as the face and 
hands. The addition of a little soap is necessary to remove the oily 
secretion deposited upon the skin. 

A lady of fashion, in enumerating the means for preserving beauty, 
says: “ Cleanliness, my last recipe (and which is applicable to all ages) r 
is of most powerful efficacy. It maintains the limbs in their pliancy, 
the skin in its softness, the complexion in its lustre, the eyes in their 
brightness, the teeth in their purity, and the constitution in its fairest 
vigor. To promote cleanliness, I can recommend nothing preferable 
to bathing. The frequent use of tepid baths is not more grateful to 

the sense than it is salutary to the health and to beauty.By 

such means, the women of the East render their skins softer than that 
of the tenderest babe in this climate.” “ I strongly recommend to ev¬ 
ery lady to make a bath as indispensable an article in her house as a 

lookinof-cdass.” 

o o 

When the foul matters which ought to be eliminated by the skin 
and quickly removed from the body are allowed to remain undisturbed, 
the skin becomes clogged and inactive, soon loses its natural lustre 
and color, becoming dead, dark, and unattractive. When bathing is 
so much neglected, it is no marvel that paints, powders, lotions, and 
cosmetics of all sorts, are in such great demand. A daily bath, at the 
proper temperature, is the most agreeable and efficient of all cosmetics. 

Bathing Protects against Colds.— It is an erroneous notion that 
bathing renders a person more liable to “ take cold, by opening the 
pores.” Colds are produced by disturbance of the circulation, not by 
opening or closure of the pores of the skin. Frequent bathing in¬ 
creases the activity of the circulation in the skin, so that a person is 
far less subject to chilliness and to taking cold. An individual who 
takes a daily cool bath has perfect immunity from colds, and is lit- 



ARISTOCRATIC VERMIN. 


307 


tl.e susceptible to changes of temperature. Colds are sometimes taken 
after bathing, but this results from some neglect of the proper precau¬ 
tions necessary to prevent such an occurrence, which are carefully 
stated elsewhere in this work. 

Aristocratic Yermin. —Doubtless, not a few of those very refined 
and fastidious people who spend many hours in the application of all 
sorts of lotions and other compounds to the face and hands, for the pur¬ 
pose of beautifying those portions of the skin exposed to view—while 
neglecting as persistently those parts of the skin protected from observa¬ 
tion—would lie very much surprised to learn the true condition of the 
unwashed portions of their cutaneous covering. They instinctively 
shrink with disgust from the sight of a vermin-covered beggar, in whose 
cuticle burrows the acarus scabiei (itch-mite), while troops of larger in¬ 
sects are racing through his tangled locks and nibbling at his scaly scalp. 
It is quite possible that many a fair “ unwashed ” would faint with 
fright if apprized of the fact that her own precious covering is the home 
of whole herds of horrid-looking parasites which so nearly resemble the 
itch-mite as to be at least a very near relative, perhaps half-brother or 
cousin. The name of this inhabitant of skins unwashed is as formida¬ 
ble as the aspect of the creature, though it does not require a microscope 
to display its proportions, as does the latter; scientists call it, demodex 
folliculorum. See Plate VIII. 

The demodex makes himself at home in the sebaceous follicles, where 
he dwells with his family. Here the female lays her eggs and rears her 
numerous family, undisturbed by the frictions of any flesh-brush, and 
only suffering a transient deluge at very long intervals, if such a 
casualty happens. In studying the structure of these little parasites, we 
have found several tenants occupying a single follicle, pursuing their do¬ 
mestic operations quite unmolested by any external disturbance. 

The demodex has been transplanted from the human subject to the 
dog; and it is found that the new colony thrives very remarkably, and 
soon produces a disease apparently identical with that known as “ mange.” 

We have not space to describe in detail these savage little brutes, 
with their eight legs, armed with sharp claws, bristling heads, sharp 
lancets for puncturing and burrowing into the skin, and their powerful 
suckers for drawing the blood of their victims. We care only to impress 
upon the mind of the reader the fact that neglect of bathing and friction 
of the skin is sure to encourage the presence of millions of these para¬ 
sites, and that the only remedy is scrupulous cleanliness of the whole 


308 


ANATOMY , PHYSIOLOGY , AND HYGIENE. 


person. Like their relatives, the itch-mite, they do not thrive under hy¬ 
dropathic treatment, and are very averse to soap and water. The best 
way to get rid of them is to drown them out. They do not produce the 
irritation which characterizes the presence of the itch insect, so that this 
evidence of their presence is wanting. But they are sure to be present 
in a torpid, unhealthy, unwashed skin, no matter how delicate or fastid¬ 
ious its possessor. 

Bathing a Natural Instinct. —All nature attests the importance 
of the bath. The rain is a natural shower bath in which all vegetation 
participates, and gains refreshment. Its invigorating influence is seen in 
the brighter appearance, more erect bearing, and fresher colors of all 
plants after a gentle rain. The flowers manifest their gratitude by ex¬ 
haling in greater abundance their fragrant odors. Dumb animals do 
not neglect their morning bath. Who has not seen the robin skimming 
along the surface of the lake or stream, dipping its wings in the cool 
waters, and laving its plumage with the crystal drops that its flapping 
pinions send glittering into the air ? No school-boy who has ever seen 
the elephant drink will forget how the huge beast improved the oppor¬ 
tunity to treat himself to a shower bath, and perhaps the spectators as 
well, for he is very generous in his use of water. 

If man’s instincts were not rendered obtuse by the perverted habits of 
civilization, he would value the bath as highly and employ it as freely as 
his more humble fellow-creatures, whose instinctive impulses have re¬ 
mained more true to nature, because they have not possessed that degree 
of intelligence which would make it possible for them to become so 
grossly perverted as have the members of the human race. Man goes 
astray from nature not because he is deficient in instinct, but because he 
stifles the promptings of his better nature for the purpose of gratifying 
his propensities. 

Clothing .—The natural requirements for dress are the following:— 

1. Modesty requires that the body should be clothed. 

2. Protection against sudden changes of temperature is required for 
the maintenance of health. 

The dusky savage who roams the tropical wilds of Central Africa 
finds no necessity for clothing. Modesty is to him unknown. The gen¬ 
ial climate of his native forests insures him against vicissitudes of tern- 
perature, and so he lives as he was born, protected only by the swarthy 
cloak which nature gave him. Civilization creates the first requirement 
for clothing, and the varying temperatures of the temperate and frigid 
zones create the second. 


ESSENTIAL QUALIFICATIONS OF CLOTHING. 


309 


Essential Qualifications of Clothing. —In order to properly meet 
the wants of the body in fulfilling the above requirements, clothing 
must possess the following qualifications:— 

1. It must allow unrestrained action of every organ of the body. 

2. It must secure equable temperature of all portions of the body. 

3. Its weight must be as light as possible without sacrificing other 
necessary qualities. 

4. It must be so adjusted to the body as to be carried with the slight¬ 
est possible effort. 

It will be admitted at once that clothing such as will meet the above 
requirements is not what is recommended by the fashion leaders of the 
day; but if ladies would forget fashion and make their garments in ac¬ 
cordance with the principles of sound common sense, they would soon be 
delighted to find themselves emancipated from the numerous ills which 
afflict them in consequence of their present mode of dress, as has been al¬ 
ready pointed out. It may be that circumstances will not always allow 
of the adoption of a dress which shall be wholly physiological in every 
respect, which is to be regretted. Custom has so long ruled that we are 
forced to yield a little to its mandates, though reluctantly. But it is 
quite possible for every woman to adopt a dress which shall be, in all 
essential particulars, free from serious defects, and that without sacrific¬ 
ing an iota of her native grace or modesty, or making a martyr of her¬ 
self or her friends. 

In the first place, the corset and all its substitutes and subterfuges, 
tight belts, and every other device for compressing the waist or any 
other part of the body can be at once discarded without the attention 
of any one being drawn to the fact unless it be by the more elastic and 
graceful step, the brighter color of the face, and the general improvement 
in health in all respects. Suppose the waist does expand a little—or a good 
deal, even—beyond the standard seventeen inches; is it any disgrace ? 
No, indeed. A woman ought to be proud of a large waist. A large 
waist indicates large lungs, and large vital organs, which, in turn, rep- 
' resent the probabilities of long life. A small waist indicates precisely 
the opposite. Why should woman—the gentler sex—be compelled to 
wear a strait-jacket, like a madman or a criminal, while man is allowed 
to go untrammeled by any such impediment ? A strong popular senti¬ 
ment in favor of large waists would soon do away with the foolish emu¬ 
lation to look frail and slender. If required, a suitable garment may be 
made, to support the bust, which will fit the form neatly without com- 



310 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY , AND HYGIENE. 


pressing any part. Able physicians declare that compression of this part 
of the body, and the wearing of an undue amount of clothing, thus pro¬ 
ducing a local increase of temperature, is the cause of many of the pecul¬ 
iar diseases of woman, acting through reflex influence upon internal or¬ 
gans. 

The next important step should be to regulate the clothing prop¬ 
erly. The whole body should be clad in soft flannel from neck to 
wrists and ankles nearly the year round. It is better to have the un¬ 
derclothing for the upper part of the body and that for the limbs 
combined in one garment. If arranged in two garments, they should 
only meet, and not overlap, as this gives too much additional heat 
over the abdominal organs. A woman’s limbs require as many thick¬ 
nesses as a man’s; and a garment which fits the limb closely will 
afford four times the protection given by a loose skirt. Thick shoes 
or boots with high tops, and heavy woolen stockings which are drawn 
up outside the undergarments clothing the limbs, complete the pro¬ 
vision for warmth. Leggins should be worn in cold weather. 

All the undergarments should be suspended from the shoulders by 
means of waists or suspenders. Waists are doubtless the better for 
the purpose. If several garments are to be suspended from the same 
waist, the rows of buttons to which they are attached should be ar¬ 
ranged one above another, to avoid bringing several bindings together. 

The two most important particulars having been secured—freedom 
from compression and uniform temperature—the outside dress may 
receive attention. It should be as simple as possible, and consistent 
with the mental comfort of the wearer. Gaudy colors and conspicu¬ 
ous ornaments betray poor taste and a vain, shallow mind. Many 
flounces, folds, and heavy overskirts are objectionable on account of 
their weight, to say nothing of the useless expenditure of time and 
money which they occasion. 

The proper length of the skirt is a question of interest in this con¬ 
nection. How long shall it be ? If physiology alone were asked the 
question, the answer would be that women do not need long skirts 
more than men, and that they are really an impediment to locomo¬ 
tion, and often very inconvenient. Long-established custom says that 
women must wear skirts. Fashion says she must wear long skirts. 
Custom and fashion have prevailed so long that they have created an 
artificial modesty which seems to demand that woman’s dress shall 
differ from man’s by the addition of a skirt, at least, even if they are 


FALSE HAIR AND HAIR DYES. 


311 


alike in all other particulars. This being the case, the best we can do 
is to modify the skirt so that it will be as free from objections as pos¬ 
sible. The great evils of long skirts are, unnecessary weight, the ac¬ 
cumulation of moisture which is transferred to the feet and ankles, 
and sundry inconveniences to the wearer in passing over rough places, 
up and down stairs, etc. 

The obvious remedy for these defects is to curtail the length of 
the dress. The train must be discarded at once as too absurd and un¬ 
cleanly, with its filthy load of gleanings from the gutter, to be toler¬ 
ated. Any further improvement, to be of practical utility, must 
shorten the skirt to the top of the ankle; and a radical dress-reformer 
will want to make it a few inches shorter. 

A very serious mistake is made by those who adopt the reform in 
the length of the dress, even to the fullest extent, but make no reform 
in other respects. Such overlook the chief defects which need refor¬ 
mation, paying their whole attention to a point which, considered 
from a physiological standpoint, is of minor importance, although 
well deserving of all the attention it receives. 

False Hair and Hail* Dyes. —The ungainly masses of unneces¬ 
sary material which fashion has heaped upon the heads of those who 
bow to her authority, are a frightful cause of diseases of the scalp and 
brain. The immense loads of hair, jute, or other material, which are 
attached to the head, cause a great increase of the temperature of the 
brain and scalp. The blood-vessels become congested, both externally 
and internally. The result of this constant surplus of blood is disease 
of the scalp and of the brain itself. Headache is an almost constant 
symptom of the injury which is being wrought by this improper treat¬ 
ment of the head. 

In consequence of the disease of the scalp, the hair soon becomes 
diseased, loses its brilliancy and color, becomes dry and harsh, and in 
many cases is lost altogether, complete and incurable baldness ensuing. 

The congestion of the brain which at first occasions only headache, 
when continued produces structural disease of that organ. The blood¬ 
vessels become weakened, and sometimes ruptured, when the patient 
either dies of apoplexy or lingers a miserable paralytic. 

When the head is encumbered with an unnatural mass of hair, and 
the brain is clogged by the excessive amount of blood and supernatural 
heat which result, the mind cannot act freely and naturally ; hard study, 
deep thought, and continued mental exercise are impossible. Fills is the 


312 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY , AND HYGIENE. 


reason why fashionable young ladies find study so hard for them, and 
apparently injurious. The incubus of such a prodigious weight as 
many a fashionable lady carries upon her cranium would be quite suffi¬ 
cient to eclipse the mental powers of the most brilliant genius. No 
wonder that woman has sometimes failed in mental competition with her 
brothers in the schools. The wonder is that she lives and possesses even 
a modicum of mental vigor. Under equally favorable circumstances, 
woman should be man’s peer in mental power and development; but if 
she wishes to secure and maintain the equality of the sexes, which so 
many earnest women are just now demanding, she must throw away 
her chignons and waterfalls, shake off her “rats and mice,” and don a 
simpler, healthier head-gear. 

The real hair that is sold to those whose tresses are considered too 
scanty is chiefly obtained from the bodies of dead persons, whose graves 
are plundered for the purpose by wretches who earn their living by this 
means. Vermin of various kinds often adhere to the hair, and infest 
the heads of those who wear it. Various imitations of hair also become 
the means of conveying loathsome parasites to the scalps of those who 
wear them. 

The use of hair dyes is a practice which the chemist and experience 
have both shown to be eminently dangerous. All hair dyes are poison¬ 
ous. No matter how strong the assertions of their harmlessness, they 
are utterly false. So-called vegetable hair dyes, hair invigorators, ton¬ 
ics, etc., are contemptible swindles. They contain mineral poisons. The 
greater portion of them contain lead. The effect of their use is not only 
to destroy the hair, and induce disease of the scalp, but to produce 
paralysis. Many cases of chronic headache have been occasioned by the 
use of these poisonous mixtures ; and in a number of cases, insanity has 
been the result. 

The use of these vile compounds, which are so widely sold and used, 
is usually as absurdly foolish as harmful. 

The Kidneys. —Figs. 131 and 132. These organs are located in 
the back part of the abdominal cavity, between the lower ribs and the 
upper border of the hip bone. In shape they resemble a kidney-bean, 
and each weighs four to six ounces. The greater portion of the kid¬ 
ney is made up of minute tubes, which terminate in the outer part of 
the organ in extremely minute round sacs, each of which contains a 
delicate, coiled capillary blood-vessel. It is by these bodies that the 
elements of the urine are separated from the blood. All the tubes 


THE LIVER AND BILE . 


313 . 


lead toward the center of the organ, where they empty into a cavity 
called the pelvis of the kidney, which narrows down into a small ca¬ 
nal, the ureter, by which the urine is conveyed to the bladder , a 
pouch-like reservoir located in the lower part 
of the abdomen, from which the urine is 
discharged through another small canal, the 
urethra. 

The urine is chiefly composed of water, 
which carries in solution a large number of 
excrementitious principles, the chief of which 
is urea, one of the most abundant and most 
poisonous of all the waste elements of the 
body. When the liver is inactive, the urine 
usually contains some biliary elements. 

Sugar is also found in the urine soon after a 
meal in which an excess has been taken. 

The condition of the urine is an important 
means of ascertaining the state of the system, 
and hence we shall speak elsewhere of the 
various points to be learned by its chemical 
and microscopical examination. 

The Liver. —This is the largest gland in 
the body, weighing between four and five 
pounds. It is a little larger, proportionately, 
in women than in men. The liver is made 
up of minute, roundish lobules, about -fa of 
an inch in diameter, each of which is fur¬ 
nished with branches from the hepatic artery 
and also from the portal vein. The liver 
thus contains a double capillary net-work. 

In addition, there is a system of minute ducts 



Fig-. 131. The Kidney, 
showing the arteries and veins 
of the organ; 13. the Supra-renal 
Capsule; and 3. the Ureter. 



or canals 


running 


through its whole sub- 


Fig. 132. Showing the in¬ 
ternal structure of the Kidneys. 


stance, by means of which the bile which is 
separated from the portal vein is drained off into a pouch upon its 
under surface, the gall bladder, or into the small intestine. 

The Bile. —This is a greenish, bitter, alkaline fluid, somewhat 
viscid in character. The amount produced each day is about two 
and one-half pounds. It is produced much more rapidly during di¬ 
gestion than at other times. 









314 


ANATOMY , PHYSIOLOGY , AIVD HYGIENE. 


As already observed, the bile is both a secretion and an excretion. 
As a secretion, it aids digestion. As an excretion, it removes from 
the body a poisonous substance called cholesterine , a waste product of 
the nervous system. This, when concentrated, is found to be a resin¬ 
ous substance. It forms the chief part of many gall-stones. 

The functions of the liver are somewhat com¬ 
plicated. In addition to its secreting and excretory 
functions, it is thought to be a sugar-forming organ, 
and to be capable of completing the digestion of 
some elements of the food. It is thought by some, 
also, that it destroys and removes from the system 
worn-out red blood corpuscles. 

The Spleen. —Among other glands should also 
be mentioned the spleen (Fig. 133), a gland found 
in the left side of the abdominal cavity next to the 
left end of the stomach, to which it is attached. Its weight is about 
seven ounces. It belongs to a class of structures knowm as blood 
glands or ductless glands, because it has no duct. However, it re¬ 
ceives a very large supply of blood, and is supposed to have some¬ 
thing to do with the production or destruction of blood corpuscles. 
It may be removed from the body, in animals, without producing 
death. The effect of its removal in cats is to cause them to become 
very fat. It is also observed that they become very irritable after its 
removal. It is said that the farmers in some parts of England make 
a practice of removing the spleen in young calves in order to cause 
them to fatten faster. 

Other Blood Glands. —Under this head are also included the 
supra-renal capsules, which are attached to the upper part of the 
liver; the thyroid gland, situated at the upper part and on either side 
of the trachea; the thymus gland, found only in early life, at the 
lower part of the trachea; the pituitary body and the pineal gland, 
found in the central part of the brain. Of these glands little else is 
known than their location and structure. 

Animal Heat. —Warm-blooded animals possess the power to reg¬ 
ulate their own temperature independent of external temperatures, at 
least within certain limits. What are called cold-blooded animals do 
not possess this power, their temperature depending on that of the 
medium with which they are surrounded. The source of animal heat 
is the various vital changes constantly taking place in the body. 



IFig 1 . 133. Spleen. 





ANIMAL HEAT. 


315 


This is shown by the fact that the amount of heat produced is exactly 
proportionate to the intensity of the vital changes. In health the 
temperature of the body is about 98|° F. When the system is under 
the influence of fever or an extensive inflammation of any sort,—■ 
which process greatly accelerates vital changes,—the temperature rises 
several degrees above the normal standard, sometimes as high as 110* 
F., though a temperature above 107° is considered to be almost cer¬ 
tainly fatal if long continued. This same principle is observed in 
lower animals and even in flowering plants. The latter absorb oxygen 
most rapidly when flowering; and in many instances it has been 
shown by careful experiment that the process of flowering in plants 
is accompanied with a marked production of heat. Birds absorb large 
quantities of oxygen, and have very active vital processes. In them 
the temperature of the body is several degrees higher than in man 
and quadrupeds. In fish and reptiles, on the other hand, in which 
the vital processes are much slower, the temperature is much lower, 
being, in fact, usually about that of the surrounding air or water in 
which they live, their heat production being actually too small to en¬ 
able them to maintain an independent temperature. A French phys¬ 
iologist experimented upon a marmot a few years ago, and found that 
when the animal was asleep, its temperature was only about 40° F., 
while it was 89° F. when awake. In all hibernating animals there is 
a marked decrease in the temperature while the animal is in a state 
of hibernation. 

There is good reason for believing that the friction of the blood in 
the blood-vessels is an important source of heat. Carefully con¬ 
ducted experiments show that the force exerted by the heart each 
twenty-four hours, which is all used up or transformed in the body, is 
equivalent to more than 1,000 degrees of heat, or sufficient to raise 
100 lbs. of water 10° F. in temperature. The fact that heat is pro¬ 
duced by conversion of the force expended in the circulation, is further 
shown by a series of experiments made by the eminent French phys¬ 
iologist, Bernard, for the purpose of ascertaining the temperature of 
the blood in various parts of the body. He found that the blood of 
the portal vein and that of the hepatic vein is warmer than that of 
any other part of the body, that in the hepatic vein showing the high¬ 
est temperature of all, which is undoubtedly attributable to the fact 
that the blood of this vein has passed through two sets of capillaries, 
so that its circulatory force has been almost wholly converted into heat. 


316 


ANATOMY , PHYSIOLOGY , A AD HYGIENE. 


REPRODUCTION. 


Believing that ignorance on this subject lies at the root of some of 
the most serious diseases and the most degrading vices to which human 
beings are subject, we have not hesitated to introduce it here in order 
to do our part in enlightening the world with reference to the dangers 
from a source which, too often unsuspected, pours forth contamination 
and degradation, blighting the prospects of the most promising, and 
sparing none who place themselves knowingly or unwittingly within its 
reach. The greater portion of this chapter is in substance quoted from 
our work upon the subject entitled, “Plain Facts for Old and Young.” 

Reproduction is a function common to all animals and to all plants. 
Every organized being has the power to reproduce itself, or to produce, 
or aid in producing, other individuals like itself. It is by means of this 
function that plants and animals increase or multiply. 

When we consider the great diversity of characters illustrated in 
animal and vegetable life, and the infinite variety of conditions and cir¬ 
cumstances under which organized creatures exist, it is not surprising 
that modes of reproduction should also present great diversity both in 
general character and in detail. 

Simplest Form of Generation. —Deep down beneath the waters 
of the ocean, covering its bottom in certain localities, is found a curious 
slime, which, under the microscope, is seen to be composed of minute 
rounded masses of gelatinous matter, or protoplasm. By watching 
these little bodies intently for a few minutes, the observer will discover 
that each is a living creature capable of moving, growing, and assuming 
a variety of shapes. Continued observation will reveal the fact that 
these little creatures multiply; and a more careful scrutiny will enable 
him to see Juno they increase. Each divides into two equal parts so 
nearly alike that they cannot be distinguished from each other. In this 
case the process of generation is simply the production of two similar 
individuals from one. 

A small quantity of slime taken from the surface of a stone near 
the bottom of an old well or at the seaside, when placed under the mi¬ 
croscope, will sometimes be found to contain large numbers of small, 
round, living bodies. Careful watching will show that they also mul- 



SEX. —HERMA P HR ODISM. 


317 


tiply by division ; but before the division occurs, two cells unite to form 
one by a process called conjugation. Then, by the division of this 
cell, instead of only two cells, a large number of small cells are 
formed, each of which may be considered as a bud formed upon the 
body of the parent cell and then separated from it to become by 
growth an individual like its parent, and, like it, to produce its kind. 
In this case, we have new individuals formed by the union of two in¬ 
dividuals which are to all appearance entirely similar in every par¬ 
ticular. 

Sex. —Rising higher in the scale of being, we find that, with rare 
exceptions, reproduction is the result of the union of two dissimilar 
elements. These elements do not, in higher organisms, as in lower 
forms of life, constitute the individuals, but are produced by them ; 
and being unlike, they are produced by special organs, each adapted 
to the formation of one kind of elements. The two classes of organs 
usually exist in separate individuals, thus giving rise to distinctions 
of sex; an individual possessing organs which form one kind of ele¬ 
ments being called a male, and one possessing organs for the forma¬ 
tion of the other kind of elements, a female. The sexual differences 
between individuals of the same species are not, however, confined to 
the sexual organs. In most classes of plants and animals, other sex¬ 
ual differences are very great. In some of the lower orders of an¬ 
imals, and in many species of plants, the male and female individuals 
are so much unlike that for a long time after they were well known, 
no sexual relation was discovered. 

Hermaphrodism, —An individual possessing both male and fe¬ 
male organs of reproduction is called an hermaphrodite. Such a combi¬ 
nation is very rare among higher animals; but it is by no means uncom¬ 
mon among plants and the lower forms of animal life. The snail, the 
oyster, the earth-worm, and the common tape-worm, are examples of 
true hermaphrodites. So-called human hermaphrodites are usually 
individuals in whom the sexual organs are abnormally developed so 
that they resemble those of the opposite sex, though they really have 
but one sex, which can usually be determined with certainty. Only a 
very few cases have been observed in which both male and female organs 
were present. 

There is now living in Germany an individual who bears the name 
of a woman; but learned physicians have decided that the person is 
as much man as woman, having the organs of both sexes. What is 


318 


RATIONAL REMEDIES FOR DISEASE. 


still more curious, this person has the feelings of both sexes, having 
loved at first a man, and afterward a woman. There have been ob¬ 
served, also, a very few instances of individuals in whom the sexual 
organs of neither sex were present. It thus appears that a person may 
be of both sexes or of no sex at all. 

Sex in Plants. —To one unacquainted with the mysteries of plant 
life and growth, the idea of attaching sexualit} r to plants seems very 
extraordinary; but the botanist recognizes the fact that the distinc¬ 
tions of sex are as clearly maintained in the vegetable as in the ani¬ 
mal kingdom. The sexual organs of the higher orders of plants are 
flowers. That part of the flower which produces seeds answers to the 
female ; another part, which is incapable of forming seeds, answers to 
the male. The fertile and sterile flowers are sometimes produced on 
separate plants. Very frequently, they are produced upon separate 
paits of the same plant, as in the oak, walnut, and many other forest 
trees, and Indian corn. In the latter plant, so familiar to every one, 
the “ tassel ” contains the male flowers, and the part known as the 
“ silk,” with the portion to which it is attached—which becomes the 
ear—the female or fertile flowers. In a large number of species, the 
male and female organs are combined in a single flower, making a> 
true hermaphrodite. 

Sex ill Animals. —As previously remarked, individuals of opposite 
sex usually differ much more than in the character of their sexual or- 
gans only. Among higher animals, the male is usually larger, stronger, 
and of coarser structure than the female. The same contrast is ob¬ 
served in their mental characters. With lower animals, especially in¬ 
sects, the opposite is often observed. The female spider is many times 
larger than the male. The male ant is small in size when compared 
with the female. Nevertheless, in all classes of animals the difference 
in the structure and the functions of the sexual organs is the chief 
distinguishing character. These differences are not so great, however, 
as they might at first appear. The male and female organs of repro¬ 
duction in man and other animals, which seem so dissimilar, when 
studied in the light shed upon this subject by the science of embryol¬ 
ogy, are found to be wonderfully alike in structure, differing far more 
in appearance than in reality, and being little more than modifications- 
of one general plan. Every organ to be found in the one sex has an 
analogue in the other which is complete in every particular, correspond¬ 
ing in function, in structure, and usually in position. 


SEXUAL DIFFERENCES. 


319 


Other Sexual Differences* —In this country there is between five 
and six inches difference in height and about twenty pounds difference 
in weight between the average man and the average woman, the aver¬ 
age man being about five feet, eight inches in height, and weighing 
one hundred and forty-five pounds; while the average woman is five 
feet, two or two and one-half inches in height, and weighs one hun¬ 
dred and twenty-five pounds. The relation of the sexes in height and 
weight varies in degree in different countries, but is never changed. 
The average height and weight of American men and women is above 
that of the average human being. 

o o 

Men and 11 omen Differ in Form. —The differences in form are so 
marked that it is possible for the skilled anatomist to determine the 
sex of a human being who has been dead for ages, by an examination 
of the skeleton alone. In man, the shoulders are broad, the hips nar¬ 
row, and the limbs nearly straight with the body. In woman, the 
shoulders are narrow and usually rounded, and set farther back, the 
collar-bone being longer and less curved, giving the chest greater 
prominence; while the hips are broad. 

The consequence of these differences is that woman is generally 
less graceful and naturally less skillful in the use of the extremities 
than man, and hence less fitted for athletic sports and feats requiring 
great dexterity. A girl throws a stone awkwardly, less from want of 
practice than from a natural peculiarity of physical structure. A 
woman walks less gracefully than a man, owing to the greater relative 
breadth of her hips, requiring a motion of the body together with that 
of the limbs. In consequence of this peculiarity, a woman is less fit¬ 
ted for walking long distances. 

The Male and the Female Brain. —But there are other important 
physical differences to which we must call attention. Man possesses 
a larger brain than woman, but she makes up the deficiency in size by 
superior fineness in quality. The female brain differs from the mas¬ 
culine organ of mentality in other particulars so marked that one who 
has given the subject attention can determine with perfect ease the 
probable sex of the owner of almost any skull which might be pre¬ 
sented to him. This difference in the conformation of the skull is un¬ 
doubtedly due to a difference in mental character, which, in turn, de¬ 
pends upon a difference in cerebral development. 

Vital Organs of Man and Woman. —The anatomist also observes 
an interesting difference in the size of the various vital organs. For 


320 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


example, while a woman has a heart proportionally smaller than the 
same organ in man, she has a larger liver. Thus, while less well fitted 
for severe physical exertion by less circulatory power, she has superior 
excretory powers. 

This peculiarity of structure is perfectly harmonious with the fact 
which experience has established so often as to make the matter no 
longer a question, that woman is less fitted for severe muscular exer¬ 
tion than man, but possesses in a superior degree the quality known 
as endurance. With a less robust frame, a more delicately organized 
constitution, she will endure for months what would kill a robust man 
in as many weeks. More perfect elimination of the wastes of the 
body secures a higher grade of vitality. On no other hypothesis could 
we account for the marvelous endurance of the feminine part of the 
civilized portion of the human race, ground down under the heel of 
fashion for ages, “ stayed,” “ corseted,” “ laced,” and thereby distorted 
and deformed in a manner that would be fatal to almost any member 
of the masculine sex. 

The Reproductive Elements. —As has been previously observed, 
in all except the very lowest forms of life, two elements are necessary to 
the production of a new individual, or a reproduction of the species,—a 
male element and a female element. The special organs by means of 
which these elements are produced, brought together, and developed into 
the new individual in a more or less perfect state, are termed sexual or¬ 
gans, as we have already seen. As an introduction to the specific study 
of the sexual organs in the human species, let us briefly consider the— 

Sexual Organs of Plants. —As already remarked, flowers are the 
sexual organs of plants. Nothing is more interesting in the natural 
world than the wonderful beauty, diversity, and perfect adaptability to 
various conditions and functions, which we see in the sexual parts of 
plants. An exceedingly interesting line of study, which has occupied 
the attention of many naturalists, is the wonderful perfection displayed 
in the adaptability of the male and female parts of plants to each 
other. Without burdening the reader with unnecessary technicalities 
of detail, we will briefly notice the principal parts of vegetable sexual 
organs as illustrated in flowers. 

Complete flowers are made up of four parts, two of which, the 
stamen and 'pistil , are essential, while the other two, the calyx and 
corolla, are accessory. 

The calyx is that part which surrounds the flower at its outer and 


SEXUAL OBGANS OF ANIMALS. 


321 


lower part. It varies greatly in form 
and color, but is most frequently of a 
green or greenish color. 

Just within the calyx is the co¬ 
rolla, which usually forms the most 
attractive, showy, and beautiful part 
of the flower. The beautifully col¬ 
ored petals of the rose, geranium, 
dahlia, and similar flowers, form 
their corollas. In Fig. 134 is given 
a diagramatic view of the various 
parts of a perfect flower. 

Sexual Organs of Animals. —The 

male reproductive element is called 
a spermatozoon or zoosperm. The 
female element is called an ovum, 
literally, an egg. 

A spermatozoon somewhat resem¬ 
bles a tadpole in appearance, having, 
however, a much longer tail in pro¬ 
portion to the size of the body, as 
will be seen by reference to Fig. 135. 

Human spermatozoa are about 
-g-J-g- of an inch in length. Those of 
reptiles are very much larger. One 
of the remarkable features of these 
minute elements is their peculiar 
movements. While alive, the fila- 
mentous tail is in constant action in 
a manner strongly resembling the 
movements of the caudal appendage 
of a tadpole. This wonderful prop¬ 
erty led the earlier observers to be¬ 
lieve that they were true animalcu- 
la. But they are not to be regarded 
as such, though one can scarcely 
make himself believe otherwise while 
watching their lively evolutions, and 
apparent volitionary movements 
from one point to another. 

21 



Fig:. 134. a. Ovary; b. Pistil; 
c c. Stamens and Anthers; d. Cor¬ 
olla; e. Calyx. 



Fig. 135. a. Human Spermatozoa; b. 
Spermatozoa of the rat; C. Spermatozoa of 
Menobranchus. (Dalton.) 

















322 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE . 


In man the formation of spermatozoa continues with greater or 
less rapidity from puberty to old age, though at the two extremes of 
existence they are imperfectly developed. When not discharged from 
the body, they are said to be absorbed. Some physiologists claim that 
they are^composed of a substance identical with nerve tissue, and that 
by absorption they play a very important part in the development 
and maintenance of the nervous system. 

It is asserted by good authorities that the reproductive element in 
man is not so well developed as to be really fit for the reproduction of 
the species before the age of twenty-four or twenty-five. After the 
age of forty-five or fifty, the reproductive elements deteriorate in 
quality, and become again unfitted for vigorous procreation. 

Tlie Ovum, —Fig. 136. The female ele¬ 
ment of generation, the ovum, is produced by 
an organ called the ovary, of which there are 
two in each individual. The human ovum 

from -^-g- to tAtt of an inch in 



m 

varies in 


size 


Fig:. 136. Human Ovum, 
magnified one hundred and 
thirty diameters. (Dalton.) 


diameter, and consists of a single cell. Ova are 
not formed in such large numbers as zoos¬ 
perms. As a general rule, in the human fe¬ 
male, a single ovum is developed and dis¬ 
charged once in about four weeks, during the 
period of sexual activity. 

Fecundation. —It is often asked, and the question has elicited 
some discussion, Which is the principal reproductive element; the 
zoosperm, or the ovum ? The ancients supposed the male element 
to be the essential element, being simply nourished and developed by 
the female; but modern research in biological science does not sus¬ 
tain this view. Probably neither one enjoys especial preeminence; 
for neither can undergo complete development without the other. In 
very rare cases, the ovum has been observed to undergo a certain 
amount of development of itself; but a perfect individual can be pro¬ 
duced only by the union of the two kinds of elements, which process 
is known as fecundation. The instant this union occurs, the life of a 
new individual begins. All the changes which result between that 
moment and the birth of the individual are those of development 
only. Indeed, the same existence continues from the instant of the 
union of the two elements, not only until birth, but through growth, 
the attainment of maturity, the decline of life, and even until death. 






MODES OF FECUNDATION. 


323 


It is interesting to observe the different methods by which fecun¬ 
dation is effected, both in plants and animals, for this is a process com¬ 
mon to both. 

Fecundation in Flowers. —The great naturalist, Linnaeus, was 
the first to explain the reproductive process in plants. He tells us 
that “ the flower forms the theater of their amours; the calyx is to be 
considered as the nuptial bed; the corolla constitutes the curtains; 
the anthers are the testes; the pollen, the fecundating fluid; the 
stigma of the pistil, the external genital aperture; the style, the vag¬ 
ina, or the conductor of the prolific seed; the ovary of the plant, the 
womb; the reciprocal action of the stamens on the pistil, the accessory 
process of fecundation.” 

Modes of Fecundation in Animals, —The modes by which fec¬ 
undation is effected in animals are still more various and wonderful 
than in plants. In some of the lower animals, as in most fish and rep¬ 
tiles, both elements are discharged from the bodies of the parents be¬ 
fore coming in contact, there being no contact of the two individuals. 
In this class of animals the process is almost wholly analogous to fec¬ 
undation in those plants in which the male and female flowers are on 
different plants or different parts of the same plant. In the female 
fish, a large number of ova are developed at a certain season of the 
year known as the spawning season. Sometimes the number reaches 
many thousands. At the same time, the testicles of the male fish, 
which are contained within the abdominal cavity, become distended 
with developed zoosperms. When the female seeks a place to deposit 
her eggs, the male closely follows; and as she drops them upon the 
gravelly bottom, he discharges upon them the zoosperms by which 
they are fecundated. The process is analogous to that observed in 
some species of frogs. When the female is about to deposit her eggs, 
the male mounts upon her back and rides about until the eggs are all 
deposited, discharging upon them the fertilizing spermatozoa as they 
are laid by the female. 

Development. —After the union of the two elements, known as 
fecundation or conception, if the conditions are favorable, development 
occurs, and the little germ is in due process of time developed into an 
individual which is an exact counterpart of its parents. During this 
developmental process, the embryonic being is variously treated by 
different classes of animals. 


324 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY , AND HYGIENE. 


Unprotected Development, —Most fishes and reptiles discharge 
their ova before fecundation, or soon after, and pay no further atten¬ 
tion to them. The fish deposits its eggs in a little hollow scooped out 
in the gravelly bed of a stream, or sows them broadcast upon the wa¬ 
ters. The turtle buries its eggs in the sand, and leaves them to be 
hatched by the sun. The ostrich disposes of her eggs in the same 
way. Many other species of animals pay no regard to the protection 
of the germs which are destined, if placed under favorable conditions, 
to become individuals like themselves. 

Development in the Higher Animals and Man. —Higher ani¬ 
mals are less prolific, and their development is a more complicated proc¬ 
ess ; hence, their young need greater protection, and, for this reason, 
the ova, instead of being discharged from the body of the female 
after fecundation, are retained.* As we have seen that a suitable re¬ 
ceptacle is sometimes provided outside of the body, so now a recepta¬ 
cle is needed, and is provided in the interior of the body of the female. 
This receptacle is called— 

The Uterus. —This is a hollow, pear-shaped organ, located in the 
median line, just behind the bladder, between it and the rectum. It 
is supported in place by various ligaments and by the juxtaposition of 
other organs. Its larger end is directed upward, and communicates 
upon each side with a very narrow tube which is prolonged outward 
on either side until it nearly touches the ovary of the same side. 
When an ovum is matured, it escapes from the ovary into the nar¬ 
row tube referred to, called the Fallopian tube , and passes down 
into the cavity of the uterus. If fecundation does not occur, it is 
expelled or absorbed after six to twelve or fourteen days. 

Uterine Gestation. —This is the term applied to the process last 
referred to. We shall not attempt to describe in detail this most won¬ 
derful and intricate of all living processes; but will sketch only the chief 
points, leaving the reader who would obtain a more complete knowledge 

* Curious examples of internal development sometimes occur in animals which usually 
deposit eggs. Snakes have been known to produce both eggs and living young at the same 
time. At the annual meeting of the American Society for the Advancement of Science, at 
Detroit, Mich., in August, 1875, we had the pleasure of examining a specimen, exhibited 
by Prof. Wilder, of a chick which had undergone a considerable degree of development 
within the ovary of the hen. It had a head, a rudimentary brain, and internal viscera, 
but no feathers nor limbs. It was, in fact, an egg hatched before it had been laid. This 
anomaly excited much interest at that time and since among biologists. 


THE PRIMITIVE TRACE. 


325 * 



of the subject to consult any one of the numerous physiological and ob¬ 
stetrical works which deal with it in a very exhaustive manner. 

As soon as the ovum is impregnated by 
the male element, it begins a process of sym¬ 
metrical division. The first division pro¬ 
duces two cells out of the single one which 
first existed. By the next division, four seg¬ 
ments are produced; then eight, sixteen, 
etc. Fig. 137. While this process is go¬ 
ing on, the ovum becomes adherent to the 
internal wall of the uterus, and is soon en¬ 
veloped by its mucous membrane, which 
grows up about and incloses it. 


The Primitive Trace. —When the proc¬ 
ess of segmentation has advanced to a cer¬ 
tain point, the cells are aggregated together 
in a compact layer at the surface. Soon a 
straight line appears upon this layer, which 
is called the primitive trace. Fig. 138. 
This delicate line becomes the basis for the 
spinal column; and upon and about it the 
whole individual is developed by an intricate 
process of folding f dividing, and reduplica- 



Fig. 137. Diagram illustrating Fig. 138. The Human Ovum after 

the segmentation of the Ovum. fecundation, showing primitive trace. 

tion of the layer of cells. One end of the line becomes the head, and 
the other becomes the tail. Even man has a caudal appendage at an 
early stage of his existence. After a further lapse of time, little excres¬ 
cences, buds, or “ pads,” appear in the proper positions to represent the 
arms and legs. After further development the ends split up into fin- 




326 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


gers and toes, and by the continued development of the parts, perfect 
arms and legs are formed. 

Curious Relatiou to Lower Animals. —It is a very remarkable 
fact that in the lower animals we have numerous examples in which the 
permanent condition of the individual is the same as some one of the 
stages through which man passes in the process of development. An 
eminent author makes the following interesting statements:— 

“ The webbed feet of the seal and ornithorhynchus typify the period 
when the hands and feet of the human embryo are as yet only partly 
subdivided into fingers and toes. Indeed, it is not uncommon for the 
‘web’ to persist to some extent between the toes of adults; and occa¬ 
sionally children are born with two or more fingers or toes united to their 
tips. 

“ With the seal and the walrus, the limbs are protruded but little 
beyond the wrist and ankle. With the ordinary quadrupeds, the 
knee and elbow are visible. The cats, the lemurs, and the monkeys 
form a series in which the limbs are successively freed from the 
trunk, and in the highest apes they are capable of nearly the same 
movements as the human arm and leg, which, in their development, 
passed through all these stages.” 

Simplicity of Early Structures. —The first structures formed 
are exceedingly simple in form. It is only by slow degrees that the 
great complexity which characterizes many organs is finally attained. 
For example, the heart is at first only a straight tube. By enlarge¬ 
ment and the formation of longitudinal and transverse partitions, the 
fully developed organ is finally produced. The stomach and intes¬ 
tines are also at first but a simple straight tube. The stomach and 
large intestine are formed by dilatation; and by a growth of the tube 
• in length while the ends are confined, the small intestines are formed. 
The other internal organs are successively developed by similar 
processes. 

The Stages of Growth. —At first insignificant in size,—a simple 
cell,—the embryonic human being steadily increases in size, gradually 
approximating more and more closely to the human form, until, at 
the end of about nine calendar months, or ten lunar months, the new 
individual is prepared to enter the world and begin a more independ¬ 
ent course of life. The following condensation of a summary quoted 
by Dr. Austin Flint, Jr., will give an idea of the size of the develop¬ 
ing being at different periods, and the rate of progress:— 


DURATION OF GESTATION. 327 

At the end of the third week, the embryon is a little less than 
one-fourth of an inch in length. 

At the end of the seventh week, it is three-fourths of an inch 
long. The liver, lungs, and other internal organs are partially 
formed. 

At the eighth week, it is about one inch in length. It begins to 
look some like a human being, hut it is impossible to determine the 
sex. 

At the third month, the embryon has attained the length of two 
to two and one-half inches. Its weight is about one ounce. 

At the end of the fourth month, the embryon is called a fetus. It 
is from four to five inches long, and weighs five ounces. 

At the fifth month, the fetus is nearly a foot long, and weighs 
about half a pound. 

At the sixth month, the average length of the fetus is about thir¬ 
teen inches, and its weight one and a half to two pounds. If born, 
life continues but a few minutes. 

At the seventh month, the fetus is from fourteen to fifteen inches 
long, and weighs two to three pounds. It is now viable (may live if 
born). 

At the eighth month, the length of the fetus is from fifteen to six¬ 
teen inches, and its weight from three to four pounds. 

At the ninth month, the fetus is about seventeen inches long, and 
weighs from five to six pounds. 

At birth, the infant weighs a little more than seven pounds, the 
usual range being from four to ten pounds, though these limits are 
sometimes exceeded. 

Duration of Gestation. —The length of time required for the de¬ 
velopment of a human being is usually reckoned as about forty 
weeks. A more precise statement places it at about two hundred and 
seventy-eight days. This limit is often varied from. Cases have oc¬ 
curred in which a much longer time has been required, and number¬ 
less cases have occurred in which human beings have been born sev¬ 
eral weeks before the expiration of the usual time, as stated. There 
is some uncertainty respecting the exact length of the period of gesta¬ 
tion, which grows out of the difficulty of determining, in many cases, 
the exact time when conception takes place. 

Uterine Life .—The uterine life of the new individual begins 
with the impregnation of the ovum, which occurs the instant it is 


328 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


brought in contact with the zoosperms of the male. While in the 
uterus, the young life is supported wholly by the mother. She is 
obliged to provide not only for her own sustenance, but for the main¬ 
tenance of her child. And she must not only eat for it, but breathe 
for it as well, since it requires a constant and adequate supply of oxy¬ 
gen before birth as much as afterward. 

How the Unborn Infant Breathes. —Oxygen and nutriment are 
both supplied to it through the medium of an organ called the pla¬ 
centa, which is a spongy growth composed almost entirely of blood¬ 
vessels, and is developed upon the inner wall of the uterus, at the 
point at which the ovum attaches itself after fecundation. The grow¬ 
ing fetus is connected with this vascular organ by means of a sort of 
cable, called the umbilical cord . The cord is almost entirely com¬ 
posed of blood-vessels, which convey the blood of the fetus to the pla¬ 
centa and return it again. The fetal blood does not mix with that 
of the mother, but receives oxygen and nourishment from it by ab¬ 
sorption through the thin walls which alone separate it from the 
mother’s blood. 

The umbilical cord contains no nerves, as there is no nervous con¬ 
nection between the mother and the child. The only way in which 
the child can be influenced by the mother is through the medium of 
the blood, to changes in which it is very susceptible, as we shall see 
more clearly hereafter. 

The cord is attached to the body of the child at the point called 
the navel, being cut off at birth by the accoucheur . With the pla¬ 
centa, it is expelled soon after the birth of the child, and constitutes 
the shapeless mass familiarly known as the after-birth, by the reten¬ 
tion of which the most serious trouble is occasionally caused. 

Parturition. —At the end of the period of development, the 
young being is forcibly expelled from the laboratory of nature in 
which it has been formed. In other words, it is born; and this proc¬ 
ess is termed parturition. Though, at first thought, such an act 
would seem an utter impossibility, yet it is a very admirable illustra¬ 
tion of nature’s adaptation of means to ends. During the months of 
gestation, while the uterus has been enlarging to accommodate its 
daily increasing contents, the generative passages have also been in¬ 
creasing in size and becoming soft and distensible, so that a seeming 
impossibility is in due time accomplished without physical damage, 


CHANGES IN THE CHILD AT BIRTH. 


329 


though possibly not without intense suffering. However, it is a most 
gratifying fact that modern medical science may do much to mitigate 
the pains of childbirth. It is possible, by a proper course of prepara¬ 
tion for the expected event, to greatly lessen the suffering usually 
undergone; and some ladies assert that they have thus avoided real 
pain altogether. Although the curse pronounced upon the feminine 
part of the race, in consequence of the sin of Eve, implies suffering in 
the parturient act, yet there is no doubt that the greater share of the 
daughters of Eve are, through the perverting and degenerating influ¬ 
ences of wrong habits and especially of modern civilization, compelled 
to suffer many times more than their maternal ancestor. We have 
sufficient evidence of this in the fact that among barbarian women, 
who are generally less perverted physically than civilized women, 
childbirth is regarded with very little apprehension, since it occasions 
little pain or inconvenience. The same is true of many women 
among the lower laboring classes. In short, while it is true that 
more or less suffering must always accompany parturition, yet the 
excessive pain usually attendant upon the process is the result of 
causes which can in many cases be removed by proper management 
beforehand and at the time of confinement. 

After being relieved of its contents, the uterus and other organs 
rapidly return to nearly their original size. 

Changes in the Child at Birth .—In the system of the child a 
wonderful change occurs at the moment of its expulsion into the outer 
world. For the first time, its lungs are filled with air. For the first 
time, they receive the full tide of blood. The whole course of the circu¬ 
lation is changed, and an entirely new process begins. It is surprising 
in how short a space of time changes so marvelous can be wrought. 

Nursing. —The process of development is not fully complete at birth. 
The young life is not yet prepared to support itself; hence, still further 
provision is necessary for it. It requires prepared food suited to its con¬ 
dition. This is provided by the mammce, or breasts, of the female, 
which are glands for secreting milk. The fully developed gland is 
peculiar to the female ; but a few instances have been known in which 
it has been sufficiently developed to become functionally active in men, 
as well as in young girls, though it is usually inactive even in women 
until near the close of gestation. It is a curious fact that the breasts of 
a new-born child occasionally contain milk. 

The first product of the mammae is not the proper milk secretion, 


330 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


but is a yellowish fluid called colostrum. The true milk secretion be¬ 
gins two or three days after delivery. 

The lacteal secretion is influenced in a very remarkable manner by 
the mental conditions of the mother. By sudden emotions of grief or 
anger, it has been known to undergo such changes as to produce in the 
child a fit of indigestion, vomiting, diarrhea, and even convulsions and 
death. Any medicine taken by the mother finds its-way into the milk, 
and often affects the delicate system of the infant more than herself. 
This fact should be a warning: to those nursing: mothers who use stimu- 
lants. Cases are not uncommon in which delicate infants are kept in a 
state of intoxication for weeks by the use of alcoholic drinks by the 
mother. The popular notion that lager-beer, ale, wine, or alcohol in any 
other form, is in any degree necessary or beneficial to a nursing woman 
is a great error which cannot be too often noticed and condemned. Not 
only is the mother injured, instead of being benefited, by such a practice, 
but great injury, sometimes life-long in its consequences, is inflicted upon 
the babe at her breast that takes the intoxicating poison at second hand, 
and is influenced in a fourfold degree from its feebleness and great 
susceptibility. 

Puberty. —For a certain period after birth, the sexual organs re¬ 
main in a partially developed condition. This period varies in duration 
with different animals; in some cases being very brief, in others, com - 
prising several years. Upon the attainment of a certain age, the indi¬ 
vidual becomes sexually perfect, and is then capable of the generative 
act. This period is called puberty. In man, puberty commonly occurs 
between the ages of ten and fifteen years, varying considerably in differ¬ 
ent climates. In this country, and in other countries of about the same 
latitude, puberty usually occurs at the age of fourteen or fourteen and 
one-half years in females, and a few months later in males. In cooler 
climates, as in Norway and Siberia, the change is delayed to the age of 
eighteen or nineteen years. In tropical climates it is hastened, occurring 
as early as nine or ten years. In warm climates it is no uncommon 
thing for a girl to be a mother at twelve; and it is stated that one of 
the wives of Mahomet was a mother at ten. 

Other causes besides climate tend to hasten the occurrence of this 
change, as habits, temperament, constitutional tendency, education, and 
idiosyncrasy. 

Habits of vigorous physical exercise tend to delay the access of pu¬ 
berty. For this reason, together with others, country boys and girls gen- 


INFLUENCE OF DIET ON PUBERTY. 


331 


erally mature later by several months, and even a year or two, than those 
living in the city. Anything that tends to excite the emotions hastens 
puberty. The excitements of city life, parties, balls, theaters, even the 
competition of students in school, and the various causes of excitement 
to the nervous system which occur in city life, have a tendency to hasten 
the occurrence of the change which awakens the sexual activities of the 
system into life. Hence, these influences cannot but be considered prej¬ 
udicial to the best interests of the individual, mentally, morally, and 
physically, since it is in every way desirable that a change which arouses 
the passions and gives to them greater intensity should be delayed rather 
than hastened. 

Influence of Diet on Puberty. —The dietary has a not unimpor¬ 
tant influence in this respect. Stimulating food, such as pepper, vinegar, 
mustard, spices, and condiments generally, together with tea and coffee, 
and an excess of animal food, have a clearly appreciable influence in in¬ 
ducing the premature occurrence of puberty. On this account, if on no 
other, should these articles be prohibited to children and youth, or used 
very sparingly. Those who advocate the large use of meat by children 
and youth have not studied this matter closely in all its bearings. While 
it is true that children and growing youth require an abundance of the 
nitrogenous elements of food, which are found abundantly in beefsteak, 
mutton, fish, and other varieties of animal food, it is also true that in 
taking those articles of food they take along with the nutrient elements 
properties of a stimulating character, which exert a decidedly detrimental 
influence upon the susceptible systems of children and youth. At the 
same time, it is possible to obtain the same desirable nitrogenous ele¬ 
ments in oatmeal, unbolted wheat flour, peas, beans, and other vegetable 
productions, which are wholly free from injurious properties. We are 
positive from numerous observations on this subject, that a cool, unstim¬ 
ulating, vegetable or farinaceous diet would deter the development of 
the sexual organism for several months, and perhaps for a year or two. 

While it may not be in all cases desirable to do this, it would at least 
be wise to adopt such measures in cases in which the child is unavoida¬ 
bly exposed to influences which have a tendency to hasten the change. 

It is important to add in this connection a word of caution against 
the adoption of a dietary too abstemious in character. It is necessary 
that an abundance of good, wholesome food, rich in the elements of nu¬ 
trition, should be taken regularly. There is no doubt that many young 
ladies have induced conditions of serious disease by actual starvation of 


332 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


the system. A young woman who attempts to live on strong tea or 
coffee, fine-flour bread, and sweet-cake, is as certainly starving herself as 
though she were purposely attempting to commit suicide by means of 
starvation, and with as much certainty of the same result. 

Cases occasionally occur in which puberty makes its appearance at 
the age of three or four years. Indeed, a case has been reported in this 
country in which a female child possessed all the characteristics which 
are usually developed at puberty, from birth. In this case the regular 
periodical changes began at birth. 

Premature Development Occasions Early Decay. —A fact which 
is of too great importance to allow to pass unnoticed, is that whatever 
occasions early or premature sexual development, also occasions prema¬ 
ture decay. Females in whom puberty occurs at the age of ten or 
twelve, by the time this age is doubled, are shriveled and wrinkled 
with age. At the time when they should be in their prime of health and 
beauty, they are prematurely old and broken. Those women who 
mature late retain their beauty and their strength many years after 
their precocious sisters have become old, decrepit, and broken down. 
Thus, the matrons of thirty and forty years in colder climates are much 
more attractive in appearance than the maidens of sixteen; while quite 
the reverse is true in this and other countries where sexual development 
is unduly hastened. 

The unnaturally early appearance of puberty is a just cause for ap¬ 
prehension, since it usually indicates an inherent weakness of the consti¬ 
tution. When there are reasons for fearing its occurrence, active meas¬ 
ures should be taken to occasion delay if possible. We call especial at¬ 
tention to this point, since there are many who erroneously suppose the 
early occurrence of puberty to be a sign of superior vigor. 

Changes which Occur at Puberty. —The changes which occur 
in the two sexes at this period have been thus well described :— 

“ In both sexes, hair grows on the skin covering the symphysis pubis, 
around the sexual organs, and in the axillae (armpits). In man, the 
chest and shoulders broaden, the larynx enlarges, and the voice becomes 
lower in pitch from the elongation of the vocal cords; hair grows upon 
the chin, upper lip, and cheeks, and often exists upon the general sur¬ 
face of the body more abundantly than in woman.” The sexual organs 
undergo enlargement, and are more frequently excited. The testicles 
first begin the secretion of the seminal fluid. 

“ In woman, the pelvis and abdomen enlarge, but the whole frame 


CHANGES WHICH OCCUR AT PUBERTY. 


333 


remains more slender, the muscles and joints less prominent, the limbs 
more rounded and tapering [than in the male]. Locally, both external 
and internal organs undergo a considerable and rapid enlargement. The 
mammae enlarge, the ovarian vesicles become dilated, and there is es¬ 
tablished a periodical discharge of one or more ova, accompanied, in 
most cases, by a sanguineous fluid from the cavity of the uterus.” 

These changes, so varied and extraordinary, often occur within a 
very short space of time; and as they are liable to serious derangement, 
especially in the female, great care should be taken to secure for the in¬ 
dividual the most favorable conditions until they are successfully effected. 
It is, however, a fact deserving of mention, that many of the ills which 
are developed at this particular period are quite as much the result of 
previous indiscretions and mismanagement as of any immediate cause. 
A few suggestions with regard to the proper treatment of individuals 
at this age may be in place. 

1. Do not allow the boy or girl to be overworked, either mentally or 
physically. Great and important changes are occurring within the body, 
and nature should not be overtaxed. 

2. Keep the mind occupied. While excessive labor should be avoided, 
idleness should be as carefully shunned. Some light, useful employment 
or harmless amusement—better some kind of work—should keep the 
mind fully occupied with wholesome subjects. 

3. Abundant exercise out-of-doors is essential for both sexes. Sun¬ 
shine and fresh air are as necessary to the development of a human be¬ 
ing as for the expanding of a flower bud. 

4. Watch carefully the associations of the youth. This should be 
done at all times, but especially just at the critical period in question, 
when the general physical disturbances occurring in the system react 
upon the mind and make it peculiarly susceptible to influences, especially 
those of an evil character. 

5. None too much care can be exercised at this important epoch of 
human life, provided it is properly applied ; but nothing could be more 
disastrous in its consequences than a weak solicitude which panders to 
every whim and gratifies every perverted appetite. Such care is a fatal 
error. 

Menstruation. —The functional changes which occur in the female 
are much more marked than those of the male. As already intimated, 
the periodical development and discharge of an ovum by the female, 
which occurs after puberty, is accompanied by the discharge of a bloody 


334 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE, 


fluid, which is known as the flowers, menses, or catamenia. The ac¬ 
companying symptoms together are termed the process of menstruation, 
or being unwell. This usually occurs, in the human female, once in 
about four weeks. In special cases, the interval may be a week less or 
a week longer; or the variation may be even greater. Dalton describes 
the process as follows:— 

“ When the expected period is about to come on, the female is affected 
by a certain degree of discomfort and lassitude, a sense of weight in the 
pelvis, and more or less disinclination to society. These symptoms are 
in some cases slightly pronounced, in others more troublesome. An un¬ 
usual discharge of vaginal mucus then begins to take place, which soon 
becomes yellowish or rusty brown in color, from the admixture of a 
certain proportion of blood ; and by the second or third day, the dis¬ 
charge has the appearance of nearly pure blood. The unpleasant sensa¬ 
tions which were at first manifest, then usually subside ; and the dis¬ 
charge, after continuing for a certain period, begins to grow more scanty. 
Its color changes from a pure red to a brownish or rusty tinge, until it 
finally disappears altogether, and the female returns to her ordinary 
condition.” 

The menstrual function continues active from puberty to about the 
forty-fifth year, or during the period of fertility. When it finally dis¬ 
appears, the woman is no longer capable of bearing children. The time 
of disappearance is termed the “ change of life,” or menopause. Ex¬ 
ceptional cases occur in which this period is greatly hastened, arriving 
as early as the thirty-fifth year, or even earlier. Instances have also 
been observed in which menstruation continued as late as the sixtieth 
year, and even later; but such cases are very rare; and if procreation 
occurs, the progeny is feeble and senile. 

With rare exceptions, the function is suspended during pregnancy, 
and usually, also, during the period of nursing. 

Nature of Menstruation. —There has been a great amount of spec¬ 
ulation concerning the cause and nature of the menstrual process. No 
entirely satisfactory conclusions have been reached, however, except 
that it is usually accompanied by the maturation and expulsion from 
the ovary of an ovum, which is termed ovulation. But menstruation 
may occur without ovulation, and vice versa. 

Menstruation is not peculiar to the human female, being represented 
in the higher animals by what is familiarly termed the “ rut.” This is 
not usually a bloody discharge, however, as in the human female, 
though such a discharge has been observed in the monkey. 


IMPORTANT HINTS. 


335 


It has been quite satisfactorily settled that the discharge of the 
ovum from the ovary generally takes place about the time of the cessa¬ 
tion of the flow. Immediately after the discharge, the sexual desires of 
the female are more intense than at other times. This fact is particu¬ 
larly manifest in lower animals. The following remark by Prof. Dalton 
is especially significant to those who care to appreciate its bearing: — 

“ It is a remarkable fact, in this connection, that the female of these 
[domestic] animals will allow the approaches of the male only during 
and immediately after the oestrual period [rut]; that is, just when the 
egg is recently discharged, and ready for impregnation. At other times, 
when sexual intercourse would be necessarily fruitless, the instinct of 
the animal leads her to avoid it; and the concourse of the sexes is ac¬ 
cordingly made to correspond in time with the maturity of the egg and 
its aptitude for fecundation.” 

The amount of fluid lost during the menstrual flow varies greatly 
with different individuals. It is estimated at from three ounces to half 
a pint. In cases of deranged function, it may be much greater than 
this. It is not all blood, however, a considerable portion being mucus. 
It is rather difficult to understand why the discharge of so considerable 
a quantity of blood is required. There is no benefit derived from a very 
copious discharge, as some suppose. Facts seem to indicate that in gen¬ 
eral those enjoy the best health who lose but small quantities of blood 
in this manner. 

As the first occurrence of menstruation is a very critical period in 
the life of a female, and as each recurrence of the function renders her 
especially susceptible to morbid influences, and liable to serious derange¬ 
ments, a few hints respecting the proper care of an individual at these 
periods may be acceptable. 

Important Hints. — 1 . Avoid taking cold. To do this, it is neces¬ 
sary to avoid exposure; not that a person must be constantly confined 
in a warm room, for such a course would be the surest way in which 
to increase the susceptibility to cold. Nothing will disturb the men¬ 
strual process more quickly than a sudden chilling of the body when 
in a state of perspiration, or after confinement in a warm room, by 
exposure, without sufficient protection, to cold air. A daily bath and 
daily exercise in the open air are the best known means of preventing 
colds. 

2. Intense mental excitement, as well as severe physical labor, is 
to be sedulously avoided during this period. At the time of its first 


336 


ANATOMY , PHYSIOLOGY , AiVX> HYGIENE . 


occurrence, special care should be observed in this direction. Intense 
study, a fit of anger, sudden grief, or even great merriment, will some¬ 
times arrest the process prematurely. The feeling of mcdaise which 
usually accompanies the discharge is by nature intended as a warning 
that rest and quiet are required; and the hint should be followed. 
Every endeavor should be made to keep the individual comfortable, 
calm, and cheerful. Feelings of apprehension arising from a contin¬ 
ual watching of symptoms are very depressing, and should be avoided 
by occupying the mind in some agreeable manner not demanding se¬ 
vere effort, either mental or physical. 

There is no doubt that many young women have permanently in¬ 
jured their constitutions while at school by excessive mental taxation 
during the catamenial period, to which they were prompted by ambi¬ 
tion to excel, or were compelled by the “ cramming ” system too gen¬ 
erally pursued in our schools, and particularly in young ladies’ semi¬ 
naries. It is not to be supposed, however, that the moderate amount 
of sound study required by a correct system of teaching would be in¬ 
jurious to a healthy young woman at any time, and we have no doubt 
that a very large share of the injury which has been attributed to 
over-study during the catamenia has been induced by other causes, 
such as improper dress, exposure to taking cold, keeping late hours, 
and improper diet. 

If there is any class of persons deserving of pity it is that large 
class of girls and young women who are in every large city employed 
as clerks, seamstresses, flower-makers, and in other taxing and confin¬ 
ing occupations. In order to keep their situations they are required 
to be on hand daily, being allowed no opportunity for rest at the men¬ 
strual period. In many cases, too, they are compelled to remain upon 
their feet all day behind a counter, or at a work table, even at periods 
when a recumbent position is actually demanded by nature. There 
should be less delicacy in relation to this subject on the part of young 
women, and more consideration on the part of employers. Here is a 
field for philanthropic labor which is well worthy of the best efforts of 
any person of influence who will engage in it. 

Custom of Indian Women. —The ease with which Indian women 
perform the parturient act is proverbial. They suffer scarcely at all 
from the pains of childbirth; and without doubt one reason of this is 
the preservation of their sexual health by rest during the menstrual 
period. At those seasons they invariably absent themselves from the 


IMPORTANT HINTS. 


337 


lodge, and enjoy absolute rest. We may readily suppose, from the 
nature of some of the Mosaic laws, that a custom somewhat similar 
prevailed among the ancient Hebrew women. If the hardy women 
of the forest are benefited by rest, certainly our more delicate females 
may be thus benefited. All need a degree of rest; with some it should 
be absolute. 

The reckless manner in which some young women treat themselves 
at the menstrual period, is quite appalling to one who is acquainted 
with the painful and inveterate character of the evils which arise 
from such abuse. It is no uncommon thing for young ladies to attend 
balls, visit skating rinks, and otherwise expose themselves to in¬ 
fluences in every way the best calculated to do them the most harm 
at this particular period, observing not the slightest precaution. Such 
recklessness is really criminal; and the sad consequences of physical 
transgression are sure to follow. A young lady who allows herself 
to get wet or chilled, or gets the feet wet, just prior to or during men¬ 
struation, runs the risk of imposing upon herself life-long injury. 
Mothers should look carefully after their daughters at these periods, 
and impress upon them the importance of special care. 

3. A third hint, which is applicable to both sexes and at all times, 
is the necessity of attending promptly to the demands of nature for 
relief of the bowels and bladder. School-girls are often very negli¬ 
gent in this respect; and we have seen the most distressing cases of 
disease which were entirely attributable to this disregard of the 
promptings of nature. Obstinate constipation and chronic irritation 
-of the bladder are common effects. When constipation results, purga¬ 
tives in the shape of pills, salts, or “ pleasant purgative pellets,” are 
resorted to with the certain result of producing only temporary relief, 
and permanent damage. 

To escape these evil consequences, do this: 1. Establish a regular 
babit of relieving the bowels daily at a certain hour; 2. Discard laxa¬ 
tive and cathartic drugs of every kind; 3. To aid in securing a regu¬ 
lar movement of the bowels, make a liberal use of oatmeal, wheat- 
meal, fruit, and vegetables, avoiding fine-flour bread, sweetmeats, and 
condiments; 4. Take daily exercise, as much as possible short of fa¬ 
tigue ; if necessarily confined in-doors, counteract the constipating in¬ 
fluence of sedentary habits by kneading and percussing the bowels 
with the hands several minutes each day; 5. Never resist the calls of 
nature a single moment, if possible to avoid it. In this case, as in 

22 


338 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE . 


numerous others, “ delay is dangerous.” Ladies who desire a sweet 
breath—and what lady does not—should remember that retained 
feces are one of the most frequent causes of foul breath. The foul 
odors which ought to pass out through the bowels find their way into 
the blood and escape at the lungs. 

It is of the greatest importance that careful attention should be 
given to the proper establishment of the menstrual function at the 
outset of a woman’s life of sexual activity. The first two years will 
be quite likely to have a deciding influence respecting her health dur¬ 
ing her w r hole future life. If a woman can get through the first two 
years after puberty without acquiring any serious uterine or ovarian 
disease, she Avill stand a good chance of enjoying a good degree of sex¬ 
ual health during the balance of her life. The foundation of a great 
share of the many thousands of cases of uterine disease is laid during 
this period. 

At this early period the daughter is usually too young to appreci¬ 
ate the importance of observing slight deviations from the standard 
of health, even if she were able to recognize them. Hence it is a 
duty which no mother should neglect, to inquire into the exact fre¬ 
quency of the periods, the amount and character of the discharge, and 
other points necessary to ascertain whether or not there is any devia¬ 
tion from the natural condition of health. If there is pain, it is a cer¬ 
tain evidence of something seriously wrong. If there is irregularity 
in any particular, it is a matter well deserving of serious attention. 

Extra-Uterine Pregnancy. —Sometimes the ovum becomes fec¬ 
undated before reaching the uterus, and instead of passing onward 
into that organ as usual, remains in its position in the Fallopian tube 
or even on the surface of the ovary. Occasionally an ovum falls into 
the cavity of the abdomen instead of passing into the tube. Even in 
this situation it may be fecundated. Impregnated ova, thus left in 
abnormal positions, sometimes undergo a greater or lesser degree of de¬ 
velopment. They often result in the death of the mother. 

Twins. —The human female usually matures but one ovum at each 
menstrual period, the two ovaries acting alternately. Occasionally 
two ova are matured at once. If fecundation occurs, the result will 
be a development of two embryos at the same time. In rare cases, 
three or even four ova are matured at once, and by fecundation pro¬ 
duce a corresponding number of embryos. As many as five children 
have been born alive at one birth, but have not usually lived more than 
a few minutes. 


MONSTERS. 


339 


31 ousters. —Defects and abnormalities in the development of the 
embryon produce all degrees of deviation from the typical human form. 
Excessive development may result in an extra finger or toe, or in the 
production of some peculiar excrescence. Deficiency of development 
may produce all degrees of abnormality from the simple harelip to the 
most frightful deficiency, as the absence of a limb, or even of a head. 
It is in this manner that those unfortunate individuals known as her- 



Figr. 133. Chang and Eng, the Siamese Twins. 


maphrodites are formed. An excessive development of some parts of 
the female generative organs gives them a great degree of similarity to 
the external organs of the male. A deficient development of the mas¬ 
culine organs renders them similar in appearance to those of the female. 
Excessive development shown in a peculiar manner produces both kinds 
of organs in the same individual in a state more or less complete. 

The uncouth shapes which are sometimes supposed to be the result 
of amalgamation with lower animals are produced in essentially the 
same manner. The stories which are frequently told of women giving 
birth to puppies and other animals have no foundation other than that 
mentioned. 

Such curious cases as the Carolina twins and Chang and Eng were 
formerly supposed to be the result of the union of two separate individ¬ 
uals. It is now believed that they are developed from a single ovum. 





















CIO 


ANATOMY , PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


Hybrids. —It is a well-known law of biology that no progeny re¬ 
sult from union of animals of different species. Different varieties of 
the same species may in some cases form a fertile union, the result of 
which is a cross between its two parents, possessing some of the qual¬ 
ities of each. The mule is the product of such a union between the 
horse and the ass. A curious fact is that the offspring of such unions 
are themselves sterile almost without exception. The reason of this is 
that they do not produce mature elements of generation. In the mule, 
the zoosperms are either entirely absent or else very imperfectly devel¬ 
oped ; hence the fact that a colt having a mule for its sire is one of the 
rarest of curiosities, though a few instances have been reported. This 
is a wise law of nature to preserve the purity of species. 

Law of Sex. —If there is a law by which the sex of the developing 
embryon is determined, it probably has not yet been discovered. The 
influence of the will, the predominant vitality of one or the other of 
the parents, and the period at which conception occurs, have all been 
supposed to be the determining cause. A German physician some time 
since advanced the theory that the two testicles and ovaries produce 
elements of different sexual character, the right testicle forming zoo¬ 
sperms capable of producing only males, and the right ovary producing 
ova with the same peculiarity. The left testis and the left ovary he 
supposed to form the female elements. He claimed to have proved his 
theory by experiments upon animals. Even if true, this theory will not 
be made of practical importance. It is, in fact, nothing more than a 
revival of an old theory held by physicians who flourished more than 
two thousand years ago. 

More recently, another German physician has advanced the theory 
that the sex may be controlled at will by observing the time of fecunda¬ 
tion. He asserts that when fecundation occurs shortly after menstru¬ 
ation, the result will be a female ; but if impregnation occurs later in 
the month, and prior to the three or four days preceding the next men¬ 
strual period, a male will almost certainly be produced. This theory 
was proposed by Prof. Thury of the academy of Geneva, who claims to 
have thoroughly tested it in a great variety of ways, and always with 
an affirmative result. Dr. Heitzman, of New A ork, an instructor in 
pathological histology, and an eminent physiologist, informs us that he 
has thoroughly tested this theory, and finds it to be entirely reliable. 
There are numerous facts which seem to corroborate the truth of this 
theory, and future investigations may give to it the dignity of an estab¬ 
lished physiological fact. 


HEREDITY . 


341 


Heredity. —The phenomena of heredity are among the most inter¬ 
esting of biological studies. It is a matter of common observation that 
a child looks like its parents. It even happens that a child resembles 
an uncle or a grandparent more nearly than either parent. The same 
peculiarities are often seen in animals. 

The cause of this resemblance of offspring to parents and ancestors 
has been made a subject of careful study by scientific men. We shall 
present the most recent theory adopted, which, although it be but a 
theory, presents such an array of facts in its support, and explains the 
phenomena in question so admirably, that it must be regarded as some¬ 
thing more than a plausible hypothesis. It is the conception of one of 
the most distinguished scientists of the age. The theory is known as 
the doctrine of pangenesis , and is essentially as follows :— 

It is a fact well known to physiologists that every part of the liv¬ 
ing body is made up of cellular elements which have the power to 
reproduce themselves in the individual, thus repairing the damage re¬ 
sulting from waste and injury. Each cell produces cells like itself. 
It is further known that there are found in the body numerous cen¬ 
tral points of growth. In every group of cells is found a central cell 
from which the others originated, and which determines the form of 
their growth. Every minute structure possesses such a center. A 
simple proof of this fact is found in the experiment in which the spur 
of a cock was grafted upon the ear of an ox. It lived in this novel 
situation eight years, attaining the length of nine inches, and nearly 
a pound in weight. A tooth has been made to grow upon the comb 
of a cock in a similar manner. The tail of a pig survived the oper¬ 
ation of transplanting from its proper position to the back of the an¬ 
imal, and retained its sensibility. Numerous similar illustrations 
might be given. 

The doctrine of pangenesis supposes that these centers of nutrition 
form and throw off not only cells like themselves, but very minute gran¬ 
ules, called gemmules, each of which is capable, under suitable circum¬ 
stances, of developing into a cell like its parent. 

These minute granules are scattered through the system in great 
numbers. The essential organs of generation, the testicles in the male 
and the ovaries in the female, perform the task of collecting these gem- 
mules and forming them into sets, each of which constitutes a repro¬ 
ductive element, and contains, in rudimentary form, a representative of 
every part of the individual, including the most minute peculiarities. 


342 


ANATOMY , PHYSIOLOGY , A AD HYGIENE. 


Even more than this : It is supposed that each ovum and each zoosperm 
contains not only the gemmules necessary to reproduce the individuals 
who produced them, but also a number of gemmules which have been 
transmitted from the-individuals’ ancestors. 

If this theory be true,—and we can see no sound objection to it,—it 
is easy to understand all the problems of heredity. The gemmules must 
be very small indeed, but it may be suggested that the molecules of 
matter are smaller still, so this fact is no objection to the theory. 

It will be seen, then, that each spermatozoon, or zoosperm, actually 
contains, in an embryonic condition, every organ and tissue of the indi¬ 
vidual producing it. The same is true of the ovum. In other words, 
the reproductive elements are complete representatives, in miniature, of 
the parents, and contain all the elements for producing an offspring pos¬ 
sessing the same peculiarities as the parents. Various modifying circum¬ 
stances sufficiently explain the dissimilarities between parents and chil¬ 
dren. 

This theory is strikingly confirmed by the fact, previously mentioned, 
that in certain cases the ovum alone, a single reproductive element, may 
undergo a degree of development approaching very near to completion. 
It is supposed that fecundation is chiefly necessary to give to the gem¬ 
mules the requisite amount of nourishment to insure development. 

As we shall see hereafter, this matter has a very important bearing 
upon several practical questions. 

Ante-Natal Influences. —There can be no manner of doubt that 
many circumstances which it is entirely within the power of the parents 
to supply, exert a powerful influence in molding both the mental and 
the physical characteristics of offspring. By carefully availing himself 
of the controlling power given him by a knowledge of this fact, the 
stock-raiser is enabled to produce almost any required quality in his 
young animals. Pigeon fanciers show wonderful skill in thus produ¬ 
cing most curious modifications in birds. The laws of heredity and de¬ 
velopment are carefully studied and applied in the production of supe¬ 
rior horses, cows, dogs, and pigeons; but an application of the same 
principles to the improvement of the human race is rarely thought of. 
Human beings are generated in as haphazard and reckless a manner as 
weeds are sown by the wind. No account is taken of the possible influ¬ 
ence which may be exerted upon the future destiny of the new being 
by the physical or mental condition of parents at the moment when the 
germ of life is planted, or by the mental and physical conditions and 


ANTE-NATAL INFLUENCES. 34,3 

surroundings of the mother while the young life is developing. Indeed, 
the assertion of a modern writer that the poor of our great cities virtu¬ 
ally “ spawn children,” with as little thought of influences and conse¬ 
quences as the fish that sow their eggs broadcast upon the waders, is not 
so great an exaggeration as it might at first sight appear to be. 

Men and women are constantly prone to forget that the domain of 
law is universal. Nothing comes by chance. The revolutions of the 
planets, studied by the aid of the telescope, and the gyrations of the at¬ 
oms, seen only by the eye of science, are alike examples of the controlling 
influence of law. Notwithstanding; this sad ignorance and disregard of 
this vitally important subject, the effects of law are only too clearly 
manifested in the crowds of wretched human beings with which the 
world is thronged. An old writer sagely remarks, “ It is the greatest 
part of our felicity to be well born: ” nevertheless, it is the sad misfor¬ 
tune of by far the greater portion of humanity to be deprived of this 
inestimable “ felicity.” 

It is an established physiological fact that the character of offspring 
is influenced by the mental as well as the physical conditions of the 
parents at the moment of the performance of the generative act. In 
view of this fact, how many parents can regard the precocious—or even 
mature—manifestations of sexual depravity in their children without 
painful smitings of conscience at seeing the legitimate results of their 
own sensuality ? By debasing the reproductive function to an act of 
selfish animal indulgence, they imprinted upon their children an almost 
irresistible tendency to vice. Viewing the matter from this stand-point, 
what wonder that licentiousness is rife ! that true chastity is among the 
rarest of virtues ! 

Prof. O. W. Holmes remarks on this subject: “ There are people who 
think that everything may be done if the doctor, be he educator or phy¬ 
sician, be only called in season. No doubt ; but in season would often 
be a hundred or two years before the child was born, and people never 
send so early as that.” “ Each of us is only the footing up of a double 
column of figures that goes back to the first pair. Every unit tells, and 
some of them ar e plus and some minus. If the columns don’t add up 
right, it is commonly because we can’t make out all of the figures.” 

It cannot be doubted that the throngs of deaf, blind, crippled, idiotic 
unfortunates who were “ born so,” together with a still larger class of 
dwarfed, diseased, and constitutionally weak individuals, are the lament¬ 
able results of the violation of some sexual law on the part of their pro¬ 
genitors. 



344 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


If parents would stop a moment to consider the momentous responsi¬ 
bilities involved in the act of bringing into existence a human being; if 
they would reflect that the qualities imparted to the new being will af¬ 
fect its character to all eternity; if they would recall the fact that they 
are about to produce a mirror in which will be reflected their own char¬ 
acters divested of all the flimsy fabrics which deceive their fellow-men, 
revealing even the secret imaginings of their hearts,—there would surely 
be far less of sin, disease, and misery born into the world than at the 
present day; but we dare not hope for such a reform. To effect it, 
would require such a revolution in the customs of society, such a radical 
reform in the habits and characters of individuals, as nothing short of a 
temporal millennium would be able to effect. 

SEXUAL HYGIENE, 

Under this head we will consider some of the more general subjects 
relating to the health of the reproductive organism which have not been 
considered in connection with the special organs and functions described. 

The use of the reproductive function is perhaps the highest physical 
act of which man is capable, its abuse is certainly one of the most 
grievous outrages against nature which it is possible for him to perpe¬ 
trate. No observing person can doubt that the sexual relations of men 
and women determine in a great degree their happiness or misery in life. 
This subject, then, deserves due attention and careful consideration. It 
is of no use to scout it; for it will inevitably obtrude itself upon us, no 
matter how sedulously we attempt to avoid it. It can be rightly con¬ 
sidered only with the most perfect candor, with the mind unbiased by 
passion, and prayerfully anxious to know and do what is right. 

In the following paragraphs of this section are considered some of the 
evils out of which grows much of the sexual suffering of men and 
women:— 

Sexual Precocity. —There are two periods in human life when the 
sexual instincts should be totally dormant; and they are so when nature 
is not perverted. The first is the period reaching from infancy to pu¬ 
berty. The second is the period reached in advanced age. 

If raised strictly in accordance with natural law, children would 
have no sexual notions or feelings before the occurrence of puberty. 
No prurient speculation about sexual matters would enter their heads. 
Until that period, the reproductive system should lie dormant in its 


XEX UA L PRECOCIT Y. 


34 5 


undeveloped state. No other feeling should be exhibited between the 
sexes than that brotherly and sisterly affection which is so admirable 
and becoming. 

Fortunate, indeed, would it be for humanity if this natural state 
always existed; but it is a lamentable fact that it is rarely seen in 
modern homes. Not infrequently, evidences of sexual passion are 
manifested before the child has hardly learned to walk. It has been 
suggested that this precocity is nothing remarkable or unnatural, 
since it is often seen in little lambs and other young animals. To this 
it is only necessary to reply that the development of the sexual in¬ 
stincts perfectly corresponds with the longevity of the animal; if 
short-lived, like the sheep, only a short period intervenes between 
birth and the attainment of the sexual appetite and virility. If the 
animal is intended for long life, as is the case with man, these mani¬ 
festations are delayed, or should be, until a much later period. 

Dr. Acton, a distinguished English surgeon, makes the following 
excellent remarks upon this subject:— 

“ Slight signs are sufficient to indicate when a boy has this un¬ 
fortunate tendency. He shows marked preferences. You will see 
him single out one girl, and evidently derive an unusual plea,sure (for 
a boy) in her society. His penchant does not take the ordinary form 
of a boy’s good nature, but little attentions that are generally reserved 
for a later period prove that his feeling is different, and sadly prema¬ 
ture. He may be apparently healthy, and fond of playing with other 
boys; still there are slight, but ominous, indications of propensities 
fraught with danger to himself. His play with the girl is different 
from his play with his brothers. His kindness to her is a little too 
ardent. He follows her, he does not know why. He fondles her 
with a tenderness painfully suggestive of a vague dawning of passion. 
No one can find fault with him. He does nothing wrong. Parents 
and friends are delighted at his gentleness and politeness, and not a 
little amused at the early flirtation. If they were wise, they would 
rather feel profound anxiety; and he would be an unfaithful or un¬ 
wise medical friend who did not, if an opportunity occurred, warn 
them that such a boy, unsuspicious and innocent as he is, ought to be 
carefully watched and removed from every influence calculated to 
foster his abnormal propensities.” 

We have been not more disgusted than shocked to see parents, 
whose intelligence ofight to teach them better, not only winking at. 


S46 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


but actually encouraging, these premature manifestations of passion 
in their children. They may yet learn, by bitter experience, the folly 
of their course, unless they make the discovery in time to avert, by 
careful reformatory training, the calamitous results which threaten 
the future of their children. 

Chastity. —In Ex. 20 : 14 and Matt. 5 : 28 we have a complete defi¬ 
nition of chastity. The seventh commandment, with the Saviour’s 
commentary upon it, places clearly before us the fact that chastity re¬ 
quires purity of thought as well as of outward acts. Impure thoughts 
and unchaste acts are alike violations of the seventh commandment. 
As we shall see, also, unchastity of the mind is a violation of natural 
law as well as of moral law, and is visited with physical punishment 
commensurate to the transgression. 

Mental Unchastity. —It is vain for a man to suppose himself 
chaste who allows his imagination to run riot amid scenes of amorous 
associations. The man whose lips delight in tales of licentiousness, 
whose eyes feast upon obscene pictures, who is ever ready to pervert 
the meaning of a harmless word or act into uncleanness, who finds de¬ 
light in reading vivid portrayals of acts of lewdness,—such a one is 
not a virtuous man. 

Man may not see these mental adulteries, he may not perceive 
these filthy imaginings; but One sees and notes them. They leave 
their hideous scars upon the soul. They soil and mar the mind; and 
as the record of each day of life is photographed upon the books in 
Heaven, they each appear in bold relief, in all their innate hideousness. 

Foul thoughts once allowed to enter the mind, stick like the lep¬ 
rosy. They corrode, contaminate, and infect like the pestilence; 
naught but Almighty power can deliver from the bondage of concu¬ 
piscence a soul once infected by this foul blight, this moral contagium. 

It is a wide-spread and deadly error, that only outward acts are 
harmful; that only physical transgression of the laws of chastity will 
produce disease. We have seen all the effects of beastly abuse result 
from mental sin alone. 

“ I have traced serious affections and very great suffering to this 
cause. The cases may occur at any period of life. We meet with 
them frequently among such as are usually called, or think them¬ 
selves, continent young men. There are large classes of persons who 
seem to think that they may, without moral guilt, excite their own 
feelings or those of others by loose or libidinous conversation in soci- 


EARLY CAUSES. 


347 


ety, provided such impure thoughts or acts are not followed by mas¬ 
turbation or fornication. I have almost daily to tell such persons 
that physically, and in a sanitary point of view, they are ruining 
their constitutions. There are young men who almost pass their lives 
in making carnal acquaintances in the street, but just stop short of 
seducing girls; there are others who haunt the lower classes of places 
of public amusement for the purpose of sexual excitement, and live, in 
fact, a thoroughly immoral life in all respects except actually going 
home with prostitutes. When these men come to me, laboring under 
the various forms of impotence, they are surprised at my suggesting 
to them the possibility of the impairment of their powers being de¬ 
pendent upon these previous vicious habits.”* 

“ Those lascivious day-dreams and amorous reveries, in which 
young people—and especially the idle and the voluptuous, and the 
sedentary and the nervous—are exceedingly apt to indulge, are often 
the sources of general debility, effeminacy, disordered functions, pre¬ 
mature disease and even premature death, without the actual exercise 
of the genital organs; Indeed, this unchastity of thought—this 
adultery of the mind—is the beginning of immeasurable evil to the 
human family.” j* 

“ Filthy dreamers,” before they are aware, become filthy in action. 
The thoughts mold the brain, as certainly as the brain molds the 
thoughts. Rapidly down the current of sensuality is swept the indi¬ 
vidual who yields his imagination to the contemplation of lascivious 
themes. Before he knows his danger, he finds himself deep in the 
mire of concupiscence. He may preserve a fair exterior; but decep¬ 
tion cannot cleanse the slime from his putrid soul. How many a 
church member carries under a garb of piety a soul filled with abom¬ 
inations, no human scrutiny can tell. How many pulpits are filled by 
“ whited sepulchers,” only the Judgment will disclose. 

Early Causes. —The earliest of all causes is hereditary predispo¬ 
sition. As we have shown, a child conceived in lust can no more be 
chaste by nature than a negro can be a Caucasian. But back of this 
there is a deeper cause, as we shall see, one that affects parents as well 
as offspring. Between infancy and puberty, are in operation all those 
influences mentioned under “ Sexual Precocity.” 

The frequent custom of allowing children of opposite sex to 


* Acton. 


t Graham. 


348 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


sleep together, even until eight or ten years of age, or longer, is a 
dangerous one. We have known of instances in which little boys of 
seven or eight have been allowed to sleep with girls of fourteen or 
sixteen, in some of which most shameful lessons were taught, and by 
persons who would not be suspected of such an impropriety. In one 
instance a little boy of eight, occupying the same bed with three girls 
several years older, was used for illustration by the older girl in in¬ 
structing the younger ones in the modus oiperandi of reproduction. 
The sexes should be carefully separated from each other at least as 
early as four or five years of age, under all circumstances which could 
afford opportunity for observing the physical differences of the sexes, 
or in any way serve to excite those passions which at this tender age 
should be wholly dormant. 

Diet vs. Chastity .—From earliest infancy to impotent old age, 
under the perverting influence of civilization, there is a constant an¬ 
tagonism between diet and purity. When old enough to take food in 
the ordinary way, the infant’s tender organs of digestion are plied 
with highly seasoned viands, stimulating sauces, animal food, sweet¬ 
meats, and dainty tidbits in endless variety. Soon, tea and coffee are 
added to the list. Salt, pepper, ginger, mustard, condiments of every 
sort, deteriorate his daily food. If, perchance, he does not die at once 
of indigestion, or with his weakened forces fall a speedy victim to the 
diseases incident to infancy, he has his digestive organs impaired for 
life at the very outset of his existence. 

Exciting stimulants and condiments weaken and irritate his 
nerves and derange the circulation. Thus, indirectly, they affect the 
sexual system, which suffers through sympathy with the other organs. 
But a more direct injury is done. Flesh, condiments, eggs, tea, coffee, 
chocolate, and all other stimulants, have a powerful influence directly 
upon the reproductive organs. They increase the local supply of blood; 
and through nervous sympathy with the brain, the passions are 
aroused. 

Overeating, eating between meals, hasty eating, eating indigestible 
articles of food, late suppers, react upon the sexual organs with the 
utmost certainty. Any disturbance of the digestive function deteri¬ 
orates the quality of the blood. Poor blood, filled with crude, poorly 
digested food, is irritating to the nervous system, and especially to 
those extremely delicate nerves which govern the reproductive func¬ 
tion. Irritation provokes congestion ; congestion excites sexual de- 


BAD BOOKS. 


349 


sires; excited passions increase the local disturbance; and thus each 
reacts upon the other, ever increasing the injury and the liability to 
future damage. 

Thus, these exciting causes continue their insidious work through 
youth and more mature years. Right under the eyes of fathers and 
mothers they work the ruin of their children, exciting such storms of 
passion as are absolutely uncontrollable. 

Tobacco and Yice. —Few are aware of the influence upon morals 
exerted by that filthy habit, tobacco-using. When acquired early, it 
excites the undeveloped organs, arouses the passions, and in a few 
years converts the once chaste and pure youth into a veritable vol¬ 
cano of lust, belching out from its inner fires of passion torrents of 
obscenity and the. sulphurous fumes of lasciviousness. If long-con¬ 
tinued, the final effect of tobacco is emasculation; but this is only the 
necessary consequence of previous super-excitation. 

We are aware that we have made a grave charge against tobacco, 
and we have not hesitated to state the naked truth ; yet we do not 
think we have exaggerated, in the least, the pernicious influence of 
this foul drug. As much might be said against the use of liquor on 
the same grounds. 

Bad Books. —Another potent enemy of virtue is the obscene litera¬ 
ture which has flooded the land for many years. Circulated by secret 
agencies, these books have found their way into the most secluded dis¬ 
tricts. Every large school contains one or more of these emissaries of 
evil men and their Satanic master. 

Largely through the influence of Mr. Anthony Comstock, laws have 
been enacted which promise to do much toward checking this extensive 
evil, or at least causing it to make itself less prominent. Our news¬ 
papers still abound with advertisements of various so-called medical 
works, “ Marriage Guides,” etc., which are fruits of the same “ upas- 
tree” that Mr. Comstock has labored so faithfully to uproot. 

It is a painful fact, however, that the total annihilation of every foul 
book which the law can reach will not effect the cure of this evil, for our 
modern literature is full of the same virus. It is necessarily presented 
in less grossly revolting forms, half concealed by beautiful imagery, or 
embellished by wit ; but yet, there it is, and no law can reach it. The 
works of our standard authors in literature abound in lubricity. Pop¬ 
ular novels have doubtless done more to arouse a prurient curiosity in 
the young, and to excite and foster passion and immorality, than even 


350 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


the obscene literature for the suppression of which such active measures 
have recently been taken. The more exquisitely painted the scenes of 
vice, the more dangerously enticing. Novel-reading has led thousands 
to lives of dissoluteness. 

Many other causes might be enumerated, as idleness, evil associa¬ 
tions, etc., but we need not dwell longer on this point. 

Untliouglit-of Excesses. —Sexual wrong exists among the mar¬ 
ried as well as the unmarried, and that within the pale of the mar¬ 
riage rite. Ignorant or regardless of the consequences, many married 
people give loose rein to their passions, .supposing that the marriage 
vow removes all duty of restraint. Nature does not, however, forget 
to inflict upon the offenders commensurate punishment for their 
wrong-doing. A long list of diseases, affecting both males and fe¬ 
males, might be presented as the direct consequences of this form of 
sexual transgression. Married people should recollect that the duty 
of restraint is as binding upon them after as before marriage. 

Without stopping to consider the various circumstances under 
which absolute continence is expedient, or desirable, or morally re¬ 
quired, we will proceed at once to examine the question, Is continence 
harmful ? 

Continence not Injurious. —It has been claimed by many, even 
by physicians,—and with considerable show of reason,—that absolute 
continence, after full development of the organs of reproduction, could 
not be maintained without great detriment to health. It is needless 
to enumerate all the different arguments employed to support this po¬ 
sition, since they are, with a few exceptions, too frivolous to deserve 
attention. We shall content ourselves chiefly with quotations from 
acknowledged authorities, by which we shall show that the popular 
notions upon this subject are wholly erroneous. Their general ac¬ 
ceptance has been due, without doubt, to the strong natural bias in 
their favor. It is an easy matter to believe what agrees well with 
one’s predilections. A bare surmise on the side of prejudice, is more 
telling than the most powerful logic on the other side. 

“ We know that this opinion is held by men of the world, and 
that many physicians share it. This belief appears to us to be erro¬ 
neous, without foundation, and easily refuted.”* 

The same writer claims “ that no peculiar disease nor any abridg- 


* Mayer. 


DOES NOT PRODUCE IMPOTENCE . 


351 


ment of the duration of life can be ascribed to such continence.” He 
proves his position by appealing to statistics, and shows the fallacy of 
arguments in support of the contrary view. He further says:— 

“ It is determined, in our opinion, that the commerce of the sexes 
has no necessities that cannot he restrained without peril.” 

“ A part has been assigned to spermatic plethora in the etiology of 
various mental affections. Among others, priapism has been attributed 
to it. In our opinion, this malady originates in a disturbance of the 
cerebral nerve power; but it is due much less to the retention of sperm 
than to its exaggerated loss; much less to virtuous abstinence than to 
moral depravity.” 

There has evidently been a wide-spread deception upon this subject. 
“ Health does not absolutely require that there should ever be an emis¬ 
sion of semen, from puberty to death, though the individual live a hun¬ 
dred years; and the frequency of involuntary nocturnal emissions is an 
indubitable proof that the parts, at least, are suffering under a debility 
and morbid irritability utterly incompatible with the general welfare of 
the system.” 

Does not Produce Impotence. —It has been declared that strict 
continency would result in impotency. The falsity of this argument is 
clearly shown by the following observations :— 

“ There exists no greater error than this, nor one more opposed to 
physiological truth. In the first place, I may state that I have, after 
many years’ experience, never seen a single instance of atrophy of the 
generative organs from this cause. I have, it is true, met the complaint, 
but in what class of cases does it occur ? It arises, in all instances, from 
the exactly opposite cause, abuse; the organs become worn out, and 
hence arises atrophy. Physiologically considered, it is not a fact that 
the power of secreting semen is annihilated in well-formed adults lead¬ 
ing a healthy life and yet remaining continent. No continent man need 
be deterred by this apocryphal fear of atrophy of the testes, from living 
a chaste life. It is a device of the unchaste,—a lame excuse for their 
own incontinence, unfounded on any physiological law.” * 

The truth of this statement has been amply confirmed by experi¬ 
ments upon animals. 

The complaint is made by those whose lives have been far otherwise 
than continent, that abstinence occasions suffering, from which indul- 


* Acton. 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


352 

gence gives relief. The same writer further says that when such a pa¬ 
tient consults a medical man, “he should be told—and the result "would 
soon prove the correctness of the advice—that attention to diet, gym¬ 
nastic exercise, and self-control, will most effectually relieve the 
symptoms.” 

Difficulty of Continence .—Some there are who urge that self-de¬ 
nial is difficult; that the natural promptings are imperious. From this 
they argue that it cannot but be right to gratify so strong a passion. 
“ The admitted fact that continence, even at the very beginning of man¬ 
hood, is frequently productive of distress, is often a struggle hard to be 
borne,—still harder to be completely victorious in,—is not to be at all re¬ 
garded as an argument that it is an evil .” * 

But if rigid continence is maintained from the first, the struggle 
with the passions will not be nearly so severe as after they have once 
been allowed to gain the ascendency. On this point, the following re¬ 
marks are very just:— 

“ At the outset, the sexual necessities are not so uncontrolled as is 
generally supposed, and they can be put down by the exercise of a little 
energetic will. There is, therefore, as it appears to us, as much injustice 
in accusing nature of disorders which are dependent upon the genital 
senses, badly directed, as there would be in attributing to it a sprain or 
a fracture accidentally produced.” *f- 

Helps to Continence. —As already indicated, and as every individ¬ 
ual with strong passions knows, the warfare with passion is a serious 
one if one determines to lead a continent life. He needs the help of ev¬ 
ery aid that he can gain. Some of these may be named as follows :— 

The Will. —A firm determination must be formed to lead a life of 
purity ; to quickly quench the first suggestions of impurity; to harbor 
no unchaste desire; to purge the mind of carnal thoughts; in short, to 
cleave fast to mental continence. Each triumph over vicious thoughts 
will strengthen virtue; each victory won will make the next the easier. 
So strong a habit of continence may be formed that this alone will be a 
bulwark against vice. 

Diet. —He who would keep in subjection his animal nature must 
carefully guard the portal to his stomach. The blood is made of what 
is eaten. Irritating food will produce irritating blood. Stimulating 
foods or drinks will surely produce a corresponding quality of blood. 


HELPS TO CONTINENCE. 


353 


Irritating, stimulating blood will irritate and stimulate the nervous sys¬ 
tem, and especially the delicate nerves of the reproductive system, as pre¬ 
viously explained. Only the most simple and wholesome food should be 
eaten, and that only in such moderate quantities as are required to re¬ 
plenish the tissues. The custom of making the food pungent and stim¬ 
ulating with condiments is the great, almost the sole, cause of gluttony. 
It is one of the greatest hindrances to virtue. Indeed, it may with 
truth be said that the devices of modern cookery are most powerful al¬ 
lies of unchastity and licentiousness. This subject is particularly deserv¬ 
ing of careful, candid, and studious attention, and only needs such in¬ 
vestigation to demonstrate its soundness. 

Exercise .—Next to diet as an aid to continence, perhaps of equal 
importance with it, is exercise, both physical and mental. It is a trite 
proverb, the truth of which every one acknowledges, that “ Satan finds 
some mischief still for idle hands to do,” and it is equally true that he 
always has an evil thought in readiness—speaking figuratively—to in¬ 
still into an unoccupied mind. A person who desires to be pure and 
continent in body and mind must flee idleness as he would the devil 
himself; for the latter is always ready to improve upon the advantages 
afforded by an idle moment, an hour given to reverie. 

Walking, riding, rowing, and gymnastics are among the best modes 
of physical exercise for sedentary persons; but there is no better form of 
exercise than working in the garden. The cultivation of small fruits, 
flowers, and other occupations of like character, really excel all other 
modes of physical exercise for one who can engage in them with real 
pleasure. Dozing is bad at any time ; for it is a condition in which the 
will is nearly dormant, though consciousness still lingers, and the imag¬ 
ination is allowed to run wild, and often enough it will run where it 
ought not. Late study, or late hours spent in any manner, is a sure 
means of producing general nervous irritability and sexual excitement 
through reflex influence. 

Bathing .—A daily bath with cool or tepid water, followed by vigor¬ 
ous rubbing of the skin with a coarse towel and then with the dry hand, 
is a most valuable aid. The hour of first rising is generally the most 
convenient time. General and local cleanliness are indispensable to gen¬ 
eral and local health. 

Religion .—After availing himself of all other aids to continence, if 
he wishes to maintain purity of mind as well as physical chastity,—and 
one cannot exist long without the other,—the individual must seek that 
23 


354 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY , AND HYGIENE. 


most powerful and helpful of all aids, divine grace. If, in the conflict 
with his animal nature, man had only to contend with the degrading in¬ 
fluences of his own propensities, the battle would be a serious one, and 
it is doubtful whether human nature alone—at least in any but rare 
cases—would be able to gain the victory; but, in addition to his own 
inherent tendencies to evil, man is assailed at every point by unseen 
agencies that seek to drag him down and spoil his soul with lust. These 
fiendish influences are only felt, not seen, from which some argue that 
they do not exist. Such casuists must find enormous depths for human 
depravity. But who has not felt the cruel power of these unseen foes ? 
Against them, there is but one safe, successful weapon, “ the blood of 
Christ which cleanseth from all sin.” 

The struggling soul, beset with evil thoughts, will find in prayer a 
salvation which all his force of will, and dieting and exercising, will 
not, alone, insure him. Yet prayer alone will not avail. Faith and 
works must always be associated. All that one can do to work out his 
own salvation, he must do; then he can safely trust in God to do the 
rest, even though the struggle seems almost a useless one; for when the 
soul has been long in bondage to concupiscence, the mind a hold of foul 
and lustful thoughts, a panorama of unchaste imagery, these hateful 
phantoms will even intrude themselves upon the sanctity of prayer, and 
make their victim mentally unchaste upon his knees. But Christ can 
pity even such; and even these degraded minds may yet be pure if with 
the psalmist they continue to cry, with a true purpose and unwavering 
trust, “ Create in me a clean heart, O God, and renew a right spirit 
within me.” “Purge me with hyssop, and I shall be clean; wash me, 
and I shall be whiter than snow.” 

At the first suggestion of an evil thought, send up a mental prayer 
to Him whose ear is always open. Prayer and impurity are as incom¬ 
patible as oil and water. The pure thoughts that sincere prayer will 
bring, displace the evil promptings of excited passion. But the desire 
for aid must be sincere. Prayer will be of no avail while the mind is 
half consenting to the evil thought. The evil must be loathed, spurned, 
detested. 

It would seem almost unnecessary to suggest the impropriety of re¬ 
sorting to prayer alone when sexual excitability has arisen from a cul¬ 
pable neglect to remove the physical conditions of local excitement by 
the means already mentioned. Such physical causes must be well 
looked after, or every attempt to reform will be fruitless. God requires 


SEXUAL CHIMES. 


355 


of every individual to do for himself all that he is capable of doing; to 
employ every available means for alleviating his sufferings. 

Sexual Crimes. — The sexual crimes with which we wish to deal, 
as being those most seldom referred to, are prevention of conception, 
and intentional abortion. The first-mentioned, we are aware, is 
hardly considered a crime by the majority of people; and the same 
might be said respecting the second with large numbers of persons, 
though it is so recognized by the law. All medical authorities agree 
that prevention of conception, no matter by which one of the numerous 
methods commonly employed it may be induced, is always harmful and 
productive of disease. Personal experience in the medical care of a 
large number of ladies suffering with all forms of sexual derangements 
has enabled us to confirm this judgment many times. As it cannot be 
told at just what moment fecundation takes place, and as it may occur 
immediately, some of the methods employed for prevention plainly in¬ 
volve moral principles most seriously. It has been previously shown 
that in the ovum of the female, and the spermatozoon of the male, 
are, in rudimentary form, all the elements which go to make up the 
“ human form divine.” Alone, neither of these elements can become 
anything mofe than it already is; but the instant that the two ele¬ 
ments come in contact fecundation takes place, and the individual life 
begins. From that moment until maturity is reached, years subse¬ 
quently, the whole process is only one of development. Nothing ab¬ 
solutely new is added at any subsequent moment. In view of these 
facts, it is evident that at the very instant of conception the embry¬ 
onic human being possesses all the right to life it ever can possess. It 
is just as much an individual, a distinct human being, possessed of 
soul and body, as it ever is, though in a very immature form. That 
conception may take place during the reproductive act cannot be denied. 
If, then, means are employed with a view to prevent conception im¬ 
mediately after the accomplishment of the act, or at any subsequent 
time, if successful, it would be by destroying the delicate product of the 
conception which had already occurred, and which, as before observed, 
is as truly a distinct individual as it can ever become—certainly as in¬ 
dependent as at any time previous to birth. 

Is it immoral to take human life ? Is it a sin to kill a child ? Is 
it a crime to strangle an infant at birth ? Is it a murderous act to de¬ 
stroy a half-formed human being in its mother’s womb ? Who will 
dare to answer “ No,” to one of these questions ? Then, who can re- 



356 


AX ATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


fuse assent to the plain truth that it is equally a murder to deprive of 
life the most recent product of the generative act ? 

Who can number the myriads of murders that have been perpe¬ 
trated at this early period of existence ? Who can estimate the load 
of guilt that weighs upon some human souls ? and who knows how 
many brilliant lights have been thus early extinguished ? how many 
promising human plantlets thus ruthlessly destroyed in the very act 
of germinating ? It is to be hoped that in the final account the ex¬ 
tenuating influence of ignorance may weigh heavily in the scale of 
justice against the damning testimony of these “ unconsidered murders.” 

Criminal Abortion. —Few but medical men are aware of the 
enormous proportions which have been assumed by this terrible crime 
during the present century. That it is increasing with fearful rapid¬ 
ity and has really reached such a magnitude as to seriously affect the 
growth of civilized nations, and to threaten their very existence, has 
become a patent fact to observing physicians. 

An eminent medical author asserts “ that the frequency of this 
form of destroying human life exceeds all others by at least fifty per 
cent, and that not more than one in a thousand of the guilt}/ - parties 
receive any punishment by the hand of civil law. But there is a 
surer mode of punishment for the guilty mother in the self-executing 
laws of nature.” 

The destruction of the child after the mother has felt its move¬ 
ments is termed infanticide; before that time it is commonly known 
as abortion. It is a modern notion that the child possesses no soul or 
individual life until the period of quickening, an error which we have 
already sufficiently exposed. The ancients, with just as much reason, 
contended that no distinct life was present until after birth. Hence 
it was that they could practice without scruple the crime of infanti¬ 
cide to prevent too great increase of population. 

The effects of this crime are not upon the child alone. The mother 
suffers not only imminent peril of life at the time, but the almost cer¬ 
tain penalty of chronic invalidism the remainder of her life. We have 
good authority for the assertion that abortion is fifteen times as dan¬ 
gerous as natural childbirth. With reference to the immorality of 
the act the eminent author of “ The Ten Laws of Health ” says:— 

“ There are those who would fain make light of this crime by at¬ 
tempting to convince themselves and others that a child, whilfe in 
embryo, has only a sort of vegetative life, not yet endowed with 


CRIMINAL ABORTION . 


357 

thought, and the ability to maintain an independent existence. If 
such a monstrous philosophy as this presents any justification for such 
an act, then the killing of a newly-born infant, or of an idiot, may be 
likewise justified. The destruction of the life of an unborn human 
being, for the reason that it is small, feeble, and innocently helpless, 
rather aggravates than palliates the crime. Every act of this kind, 
with its justification, is obviously akin to that savage philosophy 
which accounts it a matter of no moment, or rather a duty, to destroy 
feeble infants, or old, helpless fathers and mothers.” * 

“ From a very large verbal and written correspondence in this and 
other States, I am satisfied that we have become a nation of mur¬ 
derers.” j* 

Said a distinguished clergyman of Brooklyn in a sermon, “ Why 
send missionaries to India when child-murder is here of daily, almost 
hourly occurrence ; aye, when the hand that puts money into the con¬ 
tribution-box to-day, yesterday or a month ago, or to-morrow, will 
murder her own unborn offspring ? ” 

Whether this gigantic evil can ever be eradicated, is exceedingly 
doubtful. To effect its cure would be to make refined Christians out 
of brutal sensualists; to emancipate woman from the enticing, allur¬ 
ing slavery of fashion; to uproot false ideas of life and its duties,— 
in short, to revolutionize society. The crime is perpetrated in secret. 
Many times no one but the criminal herself is cognizant of the evil 
deed. Only occasionally do cases come near enough to the surface to 
be dimly discernible; hence the evident inefficiency of any civil legis¬ 
lation. But the evil is a desperate one, and is increasing; shall no 
attempt be made to check the tide of crime and save the sufferers 
from both physical and spiritual perdition ? An effort should be made, 
at least. Let every Christian raise the note of warning. From every 
Christian pulpit let the truth be spoken in terms too plain for misap¬ 
prehension. Let those who are known to be guilty of this most re¬ 
volting crime be looked upon as murderers, as they are; and let their 
real moral status be distinctly shown. 

It should be known, too, that wives are not the only ones to be 
blamed in this matter. In many instances husbands are the insti¬ 
gators as well as the abettors of the crime, and in their hands 
lies the power to stay the sacrifices to this horrible modern Mo¬ 
loch. 


* J. R. Black, M. D. 


t Reamy. 


358 


ANATOMY , PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE . 


Secret Yice. —We most deeply deplore the necessity for mention¬ 
ing one more evil akin to those already dwelt upon; but our knowl¬ 
edge of the great prevalence and terrible consequences of the awful 
sin known as solitary or secret vice, masturbation, etc., presses upon 
us the obligation to let no fit opportunity pass without raising a 
warning voice. This pernicious habit, which is so common that we 
need not describe it, we are loth to say, but must in deference to 
truth, is by no means confined to boys; girls also indulge in it, 
though, it is to be hoped, to a less fearful extent than boys, at least in 
this country. A Russian physician, quoted by an eminent medical 
professor in New York, stated in our hearing that the habit is uni¬ 
versal among girls in Russia. It seems impossible that such a state¬ 
ment should be true; and yet we have not seen it contradicted. It 
is more than probable that the practice is far more nearly universal 
everywhere than even medical men are willing to admit. Many 
young men who have been addicted to the vice, have, in their confes¬ 
sions, declared that they found it universal in the schools in which 
they learned the practice. 

Parents who have no suspicion of the evil, who think their chil¬ 
dren the embodiment of purity, will find by careful observation and 
inquiry,—though personal testimony cannot be relied upon,—that in 
numerous instances their supposed virtuous children are old in cor¬ 
ruption. Such a revelation has brought dismay into many a family, 
only too late in some cases. Said a wealthy and intelligent lady in 
whose hands our work entitled “Plain Facts for Old and Young” was 
placed by an agent, “ Oh, if I had only seen this work ten years ago 
my poor boy might have been saved ! ” She was the mother of a large 
family of sons and daughters, most of whom were remarkably bright 
and intelligent. But one had fallen a victim to this awful vice, and 
was then in an insane asylum, his mind a hopeless wreck, in conse¬ 
quence. 

The causes of this vice are numerous, including all which tend to 
produce sexual precocity, and those which have been enumerated as 
leading to unchastity. These we need not recapitulate; we would, 
however, mention one cause which in our opinion is, more than all 
others, the exciting agent in the propagation of the vice; viz.,— 

Evil Associations. —The influence of evil companionship is one 
of the most powerful agents for evil against which those who love 
purity and are seeking to elevate and benefit their fellow-men have 


SECRET VICE. 


359 


to contend. A bad boy can do more harm in a community than can 
be counteracted by all the clergymen, Sabbath-school teachers, tract- 
distributers, and other Christian workers combined. An evil boy is a 
pest, compared with which the cholera, small-pox, and even the 
plague, are nothing. The damage which would be done by a terrific 
hurricane sweeping with destructive force through a thickly settled 
district is insignificant compared with the evil work which may be 
accomplished by one vicious lad. 

No community is free from these vipers, these agents of the arch¬ 
fiend. Every school, no matter how select it may be, contains a 
greater or less number of these young moral lepers. Often they pur¬ 
sue their work unsuspected by the good and pure, who do not dream 
of the vileness pent up in the young brains which have not yet 
learned the multiplication table, and scarcely learned to read. We 
have known instances in which a boy of seven or eight years of age 
has implanted the venom of vice in the hearts and minds of half a 
score of pure-minded lads within a few days of his first association 
with them. This vice spreads like wild-fire. It is more “ catching ” 
than the most contagious disease, and more tenacious, when once im¬ 
planted, than the leprosy. 

Boys are easily influenced either for right or for wrong, but espe¬ 
cially for the wrong; hence it is the duty of parents to select good 
companions for their children, and it is the duty of children to avoid 
bad company as they would avoid carrion or the most loathsome ob¬ 
ject. A boy with a match-box in a powder-magazine would be in no 
greater danger than in the company of most of the lads who attend 
our public schools and play upon the streets. It is astonishing how 
early children, especially boys, will sometimes learn the hideous, 
shameless tricks of vice which yearly lead thousands down to ever¬ 
lasting death. Often children begin their course of sin while yet 
cradled in their mother’s arms, thus early taught by some vile nurse. 

It were better for a boy never to see or associate with a lad of his 
own age than to run any risk of being corrupted before he is old 
enough to appreciate the terrible enormity of sin and the awful con¬ 
sequences of transgression. It should be recollected also that not only 
young boys but vicious youths and young men are frequently the in¬ 
structors in vice. It is unsafe to trust any but those who are known 
to be pure. But the difficulties of knowing who is to be trusted are 
so great that the only real safety is in beginning at a very early age 


360 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 


to fortify the minds of the little ones against the danger by admoni¬ 
tions and instruction suited to their age and understanding. 

The Evil Underestimated. —While there have been those who have 
exaggerated the consequences of secret vice for nefarious purposes there 
is another class of physicians who take the opposite extreme, declaring 
that its effects are slight, and often not felt at all. We are at something 
of a loss to decide which class has done the most harm, the quacks who 
have basely excited fears beyond what the facts would warrant, for their 
own selfish advantage, or the medical gentlemen—most of them quite 
eminent in the profession—who, by declaring the vice to be harmless, 
have encouraged its propagation. We have no part with either class. 
The consequences whidff we have seen in our own experience, having 
had scores of the victims under our professional care, are sufficiently ter¬ 
rible to warrant us in raising a warning cry which we would gladly 
make loud enough to reach the ears of every child and youth in Amer¬ 
ica. The vice is an exterminating one. It ruins more lives than all 
other sexual vices together, because the most prevalent. 

We have not space here to dwell at length upon its symptoms and 
treatment, and need not do so, as we have discussed the subject at length 
elsewhere. 


LBA P ’15 





























